Instruction  in  the  Grades 

Values  and  Methods 

A  TEXTBOOK  FOR  NORMAL  STUDENTS  AND  YOUNG  TEACHERS 


BY 

OSCAR  GERSON 

FORMERLY  PROFESSOR  OF  PELAGOGY  IN  TEMPLE  UNIVERSITY 
CO-AUTHOR  OF 

A  BRIEF  TOPICAL  SURVEY  OP  UNITED  STATES  HISTORY 
GEOGRAPHY  PRIMER,    PHYSIOLOGY  PRIMER,   ETC. 


HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE,  PUBLISHERS 
31-33-35  WEST  15TH  STREET  NEW  YORK  CITY 


l- 


COPYRIGHT,  1914,  BY 
HINDS,  NOBLE  &  ELDREDGE 


TO 
KATE,  JOHN,  BOB  AND  PRUE 

WHOSE  PATIENT  FORBEARANCE  MADE  THIS  WORK  POSSIBLE 


PREFACE 

This  little  book  is  the  outgrowth  of  a  series  of  lec- 
tures delivered  to  groups  of  teachers — candidates  for 
Supervising  Principals'  certificates  at  the  annual  ex- 
aminations in  Philadelphia — and  is  published  in  re- 
sponse to  their  urgent  request. 

Throughout  the  book  the  reader  will  find  that  value 
as  determining  aim  is  regarded  as  inseparable  from  a 
philosophic  treatment  of  method.  The  constant  ne- 
cessity of  considering  values  and  aims,  which  I  have 
never  tired  of  proclaiming,  has  made  this  work  rather 
different  from  the  ordinary  treatise  on  method.  It  is, 
however,  the  recognition  of  this  point  of  view  which 
has  lifted,  or  will  lift,  teaching  from  a  trade  to  a  pro- 
fession. Every  live  teacher  must,  if  only  occasion- 
ally, catch  a  glimpse  of  the  blue  sky  of  educational 
ideate  through  the  narrow,  barred  windows  of  tradi- 
tion. Although  I  have  carried  out  the  relationship  of 
aim  and  method  in  considerable  detail,  and  have  ap- 
plied it  to  most  of  the  curricular  subjects,  I  cannot  but 
feel  that  such  repetition  is  justified  by  the  vital  im- 
portance of  this  view-point. 

I  have  omitted  the  treatment  of  the  important  sub- 
jects of  physical  and  manual  training,  music,  drawing, 
sewing,  and  cooking,  which  as  a  rule  are  either  taught 
or  supervised  by  specialists ;  and  have  confined  myself 


PREFACE  VI 

to  the  discussion  of  those  subjects,  largely  traditional, 
in  which  the  teacher  is  expected  to  work  out  her  own 
salvation.  All  the  methods  advocated  in  this  book 
find  their  justification  in  the  fact  that  they  have  been 
successfully  used,  either  by  me  or  by  teachers  whose 
work  and  results  have  come  under  my  direct  observa- 
tion. 

I  shall  not  attempt  to  acknowledge  my  indebted- 
ness to  other  writers  on  education.  In  fact,  I  could 
not,  if  I  would.  The  ideas  herein  expressed  are, 
now  at  least,  so  absolutely  my  own,  that  even  though 
I  may  be  only  their  foster  father,  I  cannot  distinguish 
them  from  my  own  offspring.  This  much  I  can  safely 
say,  that  no  view  set  forth  in  this  book  is  written 
simply  because  it  conforms  to  somebody's  theory. 
Neither  has  newness,  as  such,  been  a  part  of  my  aim. 
I  have  merely  attempted  to  collect,  in  an  orderly 
fashion,  such  parts  of  my  educational  experience  and 
reflection  as  I  thought  would  be  helpful  to  teachers  and 
normal  school  students.  I  trust  that,  if  the  reviewer 
is  moved  to  exclaim  with  Lessing,  "This  book  con- 
tains much  that  is  good  and  much  that  is  new, ' '  he  will 
not  supplement  it  with  the  caustic  comment  that  the 
good  is  not  new  and  the  new  is  not  good. 

0.  G. 

May,  1914. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION ix 

PART  I    INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER 

I    VALUES 1 

II    PSYCHOLOGY 9 

III  METHOD 22 

PART  II    METHODOLOGY 

IV  READING 37 

V    ORAL  EXPRESSION 58 

VI  SPELLING 83 

VII  WRITTEN  LANGUAGE    .         102 

VIII  GRAMMAR 129 

IX  ARITHMETIC 160 

X  GEOGRAPHY 191 

XI  HISTORY 224 

XII  PHYSIOLOGY  .     .     .     .256 


vii 


(  INTRODUCTION 

No  apology  is  needed  for  a  new  book  on  Method. 
That  there  is  real  progress  in  this  subject  is  shown 
by  the  fact  that  some  books  quickly  become  "out  of 
date ' '  and  ' '  behind  the  times. ' ' 

Tradition  still  holds  partial  sway,  however,  and 
exerts  a  two-fold  influence :  first,  in  determining  Sub- 
ject Matter;  second,  in  regard  to  Method  per  se.  It 
thus  contributes  its  share  to  four  results,  namely: 

Worthless  matter  ill-taught, 
Worthless  matter  well-taught, 
Valuable  matter  poorly  taught, 
Valuable  matter  well-taught, 

the  last  only  being  the  consummation  devoutly  de- 
sired by  all  faithful  teachers. 

The  aim  of  a  book  of  this  character  should  be  to 
furnish  a  criterion  for  educational  values,  and  inspira- 
tion for  right  methods.  In  regard  to  the  former,  the 
author  well  realizes  the  fact  that  the  educational  sum- 
mum  ~bonum  depends  upon  our  attitude  toward  that 
larger  science  of  life — ethics. 

In  this  book  the  attempt  will  be  made  to  ascertain 
the  most  generally  accepted  views  on  the  various  sub- 
jects, although  here  and  there  the  reader  will  dis- 
cover certain  radical  departures  from  existing  tradi- 
tions, as  embodied  in  present-day  courses  of  study. 

ix 


X  INTRODUCTION 

So  great  is  the  variety  of  opinion,  however,  in  regard 
to  educational  values  that  the  author,  in  lecturing  to 
classes  of  teachers,  has  often  found  the  most  difficult 
part  of  his  work  to  consist  in  determining  the  what, 
the  subject  matter,  as  well  as  the  how  or  method  on 
account  of  the  vagueness  or  neglect  of  the  aim. 

An  illustration  may  make  this  clearer.  In  teach- 
ing mode  and  tense  in  grammar,  methods  would 
vary  considerably,  according  as  we  adopted  as  our 
aim  (a)  improvement  of  spoken  and  written  lan- 
guage, (b)  preparation  for  the  study  of  foreign  lan- 
guages, (c)  training  of  memory.  Under  (a)  emphasis 
would  be  laid  upon  matters  like  the  proper  use  of  the 
future  tense;  upon  the  auxiliaries  will,  shall,  may, 
can;  the  subjunctive  forms;  etc.  Under  (b)  drill  in 
conjugation  and  the  development  of  a  helpful  pre- 
paratory terminology  would  be  emphasized.  Under 
(c)  some  special  way  of  using  the  subject-matter  to 
train  the  memory  might  be  devised. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  importance  of  definite  aim  will 
find  a  permanent,  prominent  place  in  the  teacher's 
actual  practice.  The  most  useful  habit  of  mind  for 
a  teacher  is  that  of  constant  self-questioning,  as: 
"What  is  the  use  of  this?"  "Will  it  make  a  better 
man  or  woman  of  this  child?"  "Will  it  enable  him 
to  pass  an  examination  ? "  "  Will  it  make  him  health- 
ier?" etc.,  etc. 

Although  this  is  an  age  of  specialization,  still  teach- 
ing is  teaching,  and  very  much  the  same  psycho- 
logical principles  apply  to  all  subjects  of  instruction. 
What  these  are  will  be  pointed  out  in  a  general  way 


INTRODUCTION  XI 

in  a  subsequent  chapter.  It  frequently  happens,  how- 
ever, that  a  teacher  may  secure  excellent  results  in 
one  subject,  and  indifferent  or  poor  results  in  some 
other.  The  tendency  to  introduce  departmental  teach- 
ing in  the  elementary  schools  is  to  some  extent  a  recog- 
nition of  this  diversity  of  talent  and  interest  among 
teachers.  Where,  however,  as  in  most  elementary 
schools,  the  teacher  must  give  instruction  in  all  sub- 
jects, it  becomes  exceedingly  important  that  she  should 
have  a  thorough  knowledge  of  subject-matter,  and 
also  that  she  have  guidance  in  method  in  those  sub- 
jects where  she  seems  lacking  in  ability  and  interest. 
It  is  hoped  that  this  book  may  to  some  extent  enliven 
topics,  formerly  viewed  as  dull,  and  suggest  real 
method  in  place  of  lifeless  routine. 

No  teacher  should  limit  her  knowledge  of  subject- 
matter  or  method  to  the  work  of  the  grade  which  she 
happens  to  be  teaching.  This  more  than  anything 
else  takes  the  life  out  of  work.  Ruts  do  save  some 
from  the  ditches,  but  the  educational  roads  are  broad 
and  fair,  and  both  ruts  and  ditches  may  be  avoided. 
In  the  industrial  world,  it  is  possible  for  a  man  to 
be  a  proficient  workman,  with  no  knowledge  what- 
ever of  the  relation  of  his  work  to  other  opera- 
tions in  the  same  establishment.  Such  piece-workers 
cannot  possibly  live  in  their  work.  Their  real  life 
must  be  crowded  into  the  comparatively  short  period 
outside  of  their  working  hours.1  Teaching  must 

1  The  organization,  compactness,  and  specialization  of  in- 
dustrial systems  have  a  dangerous  as  well  as  a  helpful  aspect 
when  made  a  standard  of  comparison  with  educational  insti- 


Xll  INTRODUCTION 

never  approximate  this  condition.  Of  all  vocations 
in  the  world,  teaching  is  the  one  where  the  work- 
man must  live  in  his  work.  Anything  else  spells 
failure.  Every  teacher  should  have  a  general  view  of 
the  relation  of  education  to  life.  More  specifically  she 
should  come  into  intimate  contact  with  the  work  of 
every  grade.  From  this  point  of  view,  especially,  it 
is  hoped  that  all  parts  of  this  book  will  be  found  help- 
ful to  teachers  whatever  their  grade. 

Let  it  be  said  at  once  that  no  set  of  rules  or  de- 
vices can  possibly  relieve  the  teacher  of  the  necessity 
for  watchful  eyes,  keen  ears,  quick  brain,  and  respon- 
sive heart.  The  contempt  for  pedagogical  training 
manifested  by  some  of  the  older  teachers — those  born 
teachers,  who,  being  fittest,  have  survived — is  due  to 
their  keen  perception  of  the  unearnest  self-sufficiency 
of  the  book-made  pedagogue.  They  might  be  justified 
in  quoting  to  the  latter:  "And  the  God  you  took 
from  a  printed  book  be  with  you,  Tomlinson."  As 
in  discipline,  so  in  instruction,  a  good  method  at  one 
time  may  be  bad  at  another  time ;  or  the  best  way  to 
teach  John  may  not  be  equally  good  for  Henry,  nor 
for  the  same  John  at  different  times.  A  rule  is  general 
in  nature.  This  means  that  it  is  applicable  in  the 
great  majority  of  cases.  But  the  recognition  of  the 
comparatively  few  cases  where  a  rule  is  not  applicable, 
and  the  proper  modifications  of  the  rule,  which  will 
adapt  it  to  special  situations,  measure  the  tact  and 
ability  of  the  teacher. 

tutions.  What  constitutes  true  economy  in  these  latter  is 
very  hard  to  define. 


INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

VALUES  AND   METHODS 

PART  I— INTRODUCTORY 

CHAPTER  I 

VALUES 

Explanatory. — Were  this  book  intended  as  a  philo- 
sophical discussion  of  pedagogy,  it  would  be  necessary 
in  this  place  to  devote  considerable  space  to  the  so- 
called  ethical  aim  of  education.  The  author's  pur- 
pose, however,  is  by  no  means  theoretic  or  academic, 
but  narrowly  practical,  as  proof  of  which,  philosophical 
digressions  will  be  eschewed  throughout.  In  general, 
we  may  agree  with  the  statement  that  the  aim  of  edu- 
cation is  social  efficiency.  No  thorough-going  analy- 
sis of  the  concept  of  social  efficiency  will  be  attempted 
here,  but  just  so  much  description  of  the  ideal  as 
seems  necessary  to  the  understanding  of  method. 

Mental  Discipline. — It  has  been  the  custom  of  edu- 
cators, from  time  immemorial,  to  speak  of  the  value 
of  this  or  that  study  as  "mental  discipline."  It  has 
been  thought  that  various  powers  or  faculties  could  be 
trained  or  strengthened  as  the  result  of  some  specific 
exercise,  so  as  to  function  better  in  general.  For  ex- 

1 


2  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE  GRADES 

ample,  the  "grit"  developed  in  a  football  game  was 
thought  to  give  to  the  individual  a  courageous  atti- 
tude toward  the  divers  situations  arising  in  the  battle 
of  life.  The  accuracy  and  insight  required  in  trans- 
lating a  passage  of  Latin  were  credited  with  a  tremen- 
dous effect  upon  the  development  of  accuracy  and  in- 
sight in  general.  In  the  above  sentences  the  past 
tense  has  been  used,  as  though  nobody  nowadays  ac- 
cepted these  views.  This  is  not  so.  Formal  disci- 
pline— as  it  is  called — has  rooted  itself  so  firmly 
even  in  our  every-day  speech  that  no  single  genera- 
tion of  psychologists  can  hope  to  eradicate  it.  More- 
over, in  this  popular  notion,  there  is  so  much  real 
truth  that  the  scientific  unraveling  of  the  tangle  be- 
comes especially  difficult.  Passing  over  the  contro- 
versial aspects  of  the  question,  the  following  would 
seem  to  be  a  fair  summing  up  of  the  situation  at  this 
time: — The  disciplinary  value  of  various  subjects  in 
the  curriculum  has  been  greatly  exaggerated.  As  a 
rule,  so-called  mental  training  amounts  to  no  more 
than  the  development  of  the  natural  interest  attend- 
ant on  systematized  knowledge.  The  botanist  has  not, 
on  the  whole,  better  powers  of  observation  than  the 
dressmaker.  The  one  observes  well  in  a  field  or  gar- 
den, the  other  in  the  field  of  fashion  or  at  an  evening 
function.  Where  there  is  interest  and  mental  organi- 
zation in  any  particular  subject,  there  will  be  better 
observation,  memory,  imagination.  No  game  requires 
more  concentration  and  foresight  than  chess.  Yet 
chess  players  are  not,  as  a  rule,  a  peculiarly  provident 
class.  We  must  not  think  of  the  mind  as  a  collection 


VALUES  3 

of  faculties,  each  capable  of  individual  training,  but 
rather  as  a  group  of  apperceptive  systems;  mental 
training  depending  on  the  interrelation  and  organi- 
zation of  these  systems. 

The  study  of  one  subject  may,  of  course,  assist  in 
the  mastery  of  another,  depending  upon  the  resem- 
blance between  them.  To  one  who  has  mastered  Latin, 
the  study  of  the  Romance  languages  is  comparatively 
easy.  So  a  chauffeur  should  have  but  little  trouble  in 
learning  to  run  a  motor  boat.  But  in  neither  case 
does  this  amount  to  mental  training  as  generally 
understood.  Additions  are  simply  made  to  a  system 
of  ideas  already  existing.  Nor  does  a  method  or  de- 
vice for  text-book  study  constitute  mental  training. 
Such  method  or  device  may  be  exceedingly  helpful, 
however,  because  much  of  the  ordinary  curricular 
school  work  is  dependent  on  text-book  study.  When 
we  come  to  the  ethical  or  quasi-ethical  qualities,  such 
as  courage,  perseverance,  neatness,  accuracy,  the  prob- 
lem of  formal  discipline  assumes  a  new  aspect.  No 
amount  of  psychological  experimentation  will  disabuse 
the  ordinary  teacher's  mind  of  her  belief  in  the  ethical 
value  of  school  work.  Ethical  value  there  certainly 
is,  but  it  may  not  be  left  to  itself ;  it  must  be  fostered. 
There  is  a  value,  and  a  considerable  value,  in  one's 
sticking  to  a  perverse  mathematical  problem  until  it 
is  solved.  But  this  value  inheres,  not  in  the  mere 
sticking  to  the  problem,  but  in  the  formation  of  an 
ideal  of  perseverance.  Here  is  the  teacher's  oppor- 
tunity— a  lively  moral  text.  If  a  child  is  obliged  to 
solve  again  a  long  problem  on  account  of  a  careless 


4  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE   GRADES 

error,  disgust  with  school  work  is  as  likely  a  result 
as  increased  accuracy.  All  depends  on  how  the  teacher 
handles  the  situation.  Our  answer,  then,  to  the  ques- 
tion: "What  disciplinary  value  has  subject  X  ?" 
would  depend  upon  its  resemblance  to  other  subjects 
which  would  probably  be  studied  later,  or — and  this 
is  the  more  important  consideration — upon  the  extent 
to  which  it  furnished  opportunities  for  the  develop- 
ment of  conscious  ideals. 

Utility. — The  utilitarian  aim  of  education  seems 
too  obvious  to  require  any  extended  treatment.  It 
amounts  to  the  indirect  self-preservation  of  Spencer's 
Complete  Living.  It  has  been  called  the  "bread  and 
butter  aim,"  and  various  other  uncomplimentary 
names.  Nevertheless,  in  an  increasingly  economic  age 
such  as  ours,  utility,  even  in  a  narrow  sense,  must 
justify  our  every  movement.  The  rapid  development 
of  industrial  and  vocational  education  in  recent  times 
shows  how  important  utility  is  to  the  general  public, 
and  how  frequently  values  are  reckoned  in  dollars  and 
cents.  There  was  a  modern  philosophy  in  the  face- 
tious response  to  the  highwayman's  "Money  or  your 
life!"  "Take  my  life!  I  need  my  money  to  live 
with!" 

Conventional  Aim. — There  are  many  things  which  we 
learn,  not  because  they  are  narrowly  utilitarian,  nor 
for  any  supposed  mental  value,  but  simply  because 
everybody  else  learns  them.  What  our  parents  have 
learned,  we  should  learn,  and  thus  tradition  continues 
to  grip  our  curricula.  The  educational  body  is  choked 
with  vestigial  organs.  The  surgical  excision  must 


VALUES  5 

needs  be  delicate  and  often  painful,  but  some  excision 
is  necessary.  This  conventional  value  of  studies  as- 
sumes greater  proportions  in  the  secondary  than  in  the 
elementary  school.  Although  we  cannot  disregard  it 
altogether,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  conventional  aim 
is  responsible  for  a  tremendous  economic  waste  in  edu- 
cation. 

Health. — Modern  school  education  is  recognizing 
more  and  more  the  importance  of  physical  well-being. 
Not  only  is  health  regarded  as  an  end  in  itself,  but 
also  as  an  indispensable  condition  of  happiness  and 
efficiency.  The  architecture  and  equipment  of  modern 
school  buildings  show  the  increasing  recognition  of 
health  in  the  everbroadening  scope  of  education. 
Specific  instruction  in  gymnastics  and  supervised  play 
indicate  this  recognition  most  concretely.  Medical  in- 
spection and  school  nurses  must  now  be  included  in 
every  up-to-date  school  system.  Physiology,  hygiene, 
and  cooking,  directly,  and  various  other  curricular 
subjects  indirectly  help  to  build  up  proper  physical 
habits  and  ideals. 

Happiness. — Without  attempting  the  difficult  task  of 
defining  happiness,  we  may  take  it  for  granted  that 
it  is  a  most  important  worldly  aim.  The  genial  heart- 
glow  of  benevolence,  the  pleasure  of  listening  to  good 
music,  of  reading  good  books,  the  gratification  of  a 
clear  conscience,  are  all  highly  desirable  forms  of  the 
mental  life.  This  has  been  called  the  sentimental  or 
emotional  value  of  education,  but  the  term  does  not 
seem  exactly  appropriate.  Utilitarianism  in  educa- 
tion is  sometimes  used  to  include  happiness  as  well 


6  INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   GRADES 

as  the  "bread-and-butter  aim"  above  described.  The 
present  vocational  tendency  does  not  emphasize  hap- 
piness sufficiently,  nor  does  it  seem  to  discern  the 
true  relation  between  contentment  and  worldly  pos- 
sessions. For  the  great  mass  of  mankind  the  voca- 
tion tends  to  become  drudgery.  How  to  employ  one 's 
leisure  is  a  problem  of  the  highest  importance. 
' l  What  shall  I  do  ? "  is  perhaps  the  most  vital  question 
which  the  laborer  puts  to  himself  at  the  close  of  a 
day's  work.  Much  depends  on  the  answer  to  such 
questions  as  "What  books  shall  I  read?"  "What 
music  shall  I  hear?"  "To  what  theater  shall  I  go?" 
It  is  the  employment  of  his  leisure  which  may  make  or 
mar  the  man.  Education  must  therefore  strive  to 
furnish  a  rational  measuring  stick  for  pleasures.  In 
literature,  art,  and  the  drama  the  creation  of  rational 
standards  must  be  attempted,  so  that  some  apprecia- 
tion of  the  noble  and  beautiful  may  be  achieved.  The 
educator  must  repudiate  Spencer's  shallow  argument 
that  since  the  fine  arts  occupy  the  leisure  part  of  life, 
they  should  be  allotted  only  the  leisure  part  of  edu- 
cation. For  the  ordinary  unskilled  workman,  leisure 
is  life;  work,  mere  existence. 

Morality. — According  to  Herbart,  all  subjects  have 
a  moral  value,  and  properly  interpreted  this  is  un- 
doubtedly true.  Were  this  an  academic  thesis,  I 
should  certainly  have  included  the  pursuit  of  happi- 
ness in  the  present  paragraph.  Instead,  I  am  re- 
stricting the  term  morality  to  a  more  or  less  clearly 
defined  set  of  virtues,  all  of  which  are  often  grouped 


VALUES  7 

together  under  the  head  of  duty  or  conscience ;  for  in- 
stance, truthfulness,  justice,  generosity,  purity,  faith- 
fulness, patriotism.  When,  in  the  course  of  this  book, 
I  have  occasion  to  speak  of  the  moral  value  of  a  sub- 
ject, I  shall  have  special  reference  to  one  or  more  of 
these  specific  virtues.  As  we  shall  see  in  the  next 
chapter,  all  education  worthy  of  the  name  must  justify 
itself  by  its  inculcation  of  morality  in  the  deepest 
sense. 

Preparation. — There  are  some  subjects  or  portions 
of  subjects  which  are  of  little  or  no  value  in  themselves, 
but  which  form  a  necessary  preparation  for  the  study 
of  some  other  subject.  I  shall  use  the  term  propaedeu- 
tic to  describe  this  value.  Propaadeutic  or  prepara- 
tory work  may  sometimes  occupy  considerable  time, 
and  be  relatively  complete  in  itself,  or  it  may  be  paren- 
thetical in  character,  holding  together  the  really  im- 
portant parts  of  a  subject— the  connective  tissue  of 
education,  as  it  were.  In  a  broad  sense,  all  school 
education  is  propaedeutic,  constituting  a  preparation 
for  life. 

Relation  of  the  Values, — Although  treated  sepa- 
rately for  convenience,  we  must  not  overlook  the  great 
overlapping  of  these  various  aims  or  values.  For 
example,  usefulness  generally  has  value  for  happiness. 
Many  hold  that  true  contentment  can  result  only 
from  morality.  Again,  it  is  pleasant  to  know  those 
things  which  we  are  expected  to  know.  Besides,  there 
is  the  useful  side — a  reputation  for  knowing  the  things 
we  are  expected  to  know  will  gain  us  influential 


8  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

friends.  There  is  thus  formed  a  complicated  network 
— all  of  which,  however,  may  be  included  under  social 
efficiency. 

Again,  the  value  of  any  kind  of  knowledge  or  pro- 
ficiency is  relative.  Proficiency  in  baseball  has  chiefly 
happiness  value  for  the  college  boy,  but  strictly  utili- 
tarian value  for  the  professional  ball  player.  Knowl- 
edge of  the  function  of  a  carburetor  has  merely  con- 
ventional value  to  the  poor  bricklayer  who  can  only 
afford  to  talk  ' 'automobile/'  but  decidedly  utilitarian 
value  to  the  fortunate  one  who  operates  his  own  car. 
Conversely,  whatever  knowledge  of  laying  bricks  the 
latter  possesses  is  entirely  conventional,  while  that  of 
the  former  is  utilitarian. 


CHAPTER  II 
PSYCHOLOGY 

Explanation. — It  is  customary  to  include  a  course  in 
psychology  in  the  curriculum  of  normal  schools,  and 
in  spite  of  various  adverse  criticisms,  the  common- 
sense  of  education  favors  the  study  of  this  science. 
In  this  chapter  no  attempt  will  be  made  to  give  an 
exhaustive  or  even  a  comprehensive  view  of  psy- 
chology. My  purpose  is  rather  to  fix  with  some  degree 
of  defmiteness  the  terminology  which  I  shall  employ 
in  this  book  and  to  emphasize  those  portions  of  mental 
science  which  seem  to  me  to  have  a  direct  bearing  upon 
method.  It  may  not  be  amiss  to  state  what  to  most 
should  be  patent,  that  no  amount  of  psychological 
knowledge  can  make  a  teacher.  The  thoughtful 
teacher,  however,  will  find  that  a  grasp  of  fundamen- 
tal psychological  conceptions  will  aid  her  consider- 
ably. It  will  serve  as  a  searchlight  to  illuminate  her 
experiences,  revealing  frequently  the  cause  of  suc- 
cess and  the  reasons  for  failure.  So  far  as  the  teacher 
is  concerned,  psychology  is  to  education  as  physiology 
is  to  hygiene.  It  is  not  necessary  for  the  ordinary 
health-seeking  mortal  to  know  the  exact  microscopic 
constitution  of  the  retina  in  order  to  preserve  his 
eye-sight ;  nor  is  it  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  wade 

9 


10  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

through  an  exhaustive  analysis  of  attention  to  know 
that  pupils  must  be  attentive  in  order  to  learn. 

Kinds  of  Knowledge. — We  may,  for  convenience,  di- 
vide knowledge  into  three  classes,  viz.,  subjective,  ob- 
jective, and  ejective.1  Subjective  knowledge  is  knowl- 
edge of  one's  own  mental  states.  The  exhilaration  of 
an  ocean  breeze,  a  slight  headache  and  eye  strain, 
represent  elements  of  subjective  experience  as  I  write 
these  words.  I  use  the  term  objective  knowledge  to 
designate  all  knowledge  gained  through  the  senses. 
The  external  world  is  objective  to  me.  In  a  philosoph- 
ical sense,  of  course,  all  objective  knowledge  is  also 
subjective  to  the  individual  observer.  A  gull  wing- 
ing its  flight  above  me,  the  swish  of  the  waves,  the 
paper  on  which  I  am  writing,  are  all  elements  of  my 
objective  knowledge.  By  ejective  knowledge,  I  mean 
all  knowledge  that  is  absolutely  " thrown  out  of"  my 
own  consciousness.  I  infer  the  feelings  and  ideas  of 
other  living  creatures  by  their  actions  and  words.  I 
have  no  direct  knowledge  of  their  mental  states.  We 
gain  subjective  knowledge  by  introspection,  objective 
knowledge  by  observation,  and  ejective  knowledge  by 
inference.  These  three  methods — introspection,  ob- 
servation, and  inference  are  all  essential  to  a  knowledge 
of  mind. 

Importance  of  Ejective  Knowledge. — The  older 
psychologists  depended  almost  entirely  upon  intro- 
spection. This  made  their  psychological  work  narrow 
and  unscientific.  In  modern  times,  scientific  methods, 

1  This  useful  term,  I  believe,  was  first  used  in  this  sense  by 
Clifford. 


PSYCHOLOGY  11 

particularly  experimentation  and  statistics,  have  prac- 
tically revolutionized  the  study  of  this  subject.  Even 
to-day,  however,  psychologists  find  it  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  make  due  allowance  for  individual  differences. 
It  is  hard  to  get  another  person's  viewpoint,  to  esti- 
mate his  feelings  and  ideas.  We  constantly  project 
ourselves  into  the  minds  of  others.  The  difficulties 
attending  ejective  knowledge  are  increased  many  fold 
where  there  are  great  differences  of  age,  of  race,  or 
of  sex  •  and  when  we  attempt  to  comprehend  the  minds 
of  lower  animals,  we  may  well  stand  aghast. 

These  difficulties  may  be  illustrated  by  the  odd  work- 
ings of  sympathy,  which,  as  its  etymology  implies,  in- 
volves the  attempt  to  gain  ejective  knowledge.  The 
young  father  of  an  infant  is  frequently  much  dis- 
tressed by  the  crying  of  his  offspring.  Much  of  the 
parent  Js  perturbation  is  due  to  his  inability  to  prevent 
the  projection  of  his  own  consciousness  into  the  mind 
of  the  child.  Inevitably  he  reasons  that  the  pain  or 
agony  causing  the  infantile  outburst  is  as  intense  as 
would  be  required  to  cause  a  similar  outburst  in  him. 
This  peculiar  working  of  sympathy  often  goes  so  far 
as  to  cause  feeling  for  the  lifeless  corpses  about  to  be 
laid  in  the  cold  earth.  If  the  emotional  life  of  fish 
has  merited  all  the  feminine  sympathy  spent  upon 
them,  horrible,  indeed,  must  be  their  sufferings. 

However,  in  spite  of  the  difficulties  and  uncer,tain- 
ties  of  ejective  knowledge — due  largely  to  the  inevi- 
table projection  of  self — all  human  beings  are  con- 
stantly endeavoring  to  employ  it.  Teachers  especially 
are  required  to  gauge  the  mentality  of  their  pupils. 


12  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

There  is  not  a  lesson  which  does  not  necessitate  an 
appraisal  of  the  mental  response  of  the  class,  and  it 
is  largely  this  ejective  uncertainty  which  makes  self- 
activity  so  important  in  pedagogy. 

Sensation,  Perception,  and  Apperception. — A  scien- 
tific classification  of  the  sensations  would  be  out  of 
place  here,  nor  is  it  particularly  important  for  the 
teacher.  Sensation  is  to  psychology  what  the  atom  is 
to  chemistry — a  hypothetical  entity  of  merely  theo- 
retical significance.  A  sensation,  to  be  of  value,  must 
be  apperceived;  that  is,  it  must  be  made  a  part  of 
some  more  or  less  elaborate  group  of  ideas.  This  ap- 
perception may  range  from  our  hazy  ideas  of  time 
and  place  when  first  awakened  from  sleep,  to  the  clear 
understanding  of  a  mathematical  problem  upon  which 
we  have  concentrated  our  attention.  An  elaborate 
group  of  ideas  is  often  called  an  apperceptive  system. 
Intelligence  is  proportioned  to  the  number,  perfection, 
and  interrelationships  of  apperceptive  systems.  A 
well  ordered  mind  approximates  a  well  organized 
army  with  its  battalions,  companies,  etc.,  in  proper  sub- 
ordination, while  over  all  stands  the  commander-in- 
chief .  Perception  is  but  another  name  for  that  kind 
of  apperception  through  which  we  gain  objective 
knowledge.  The  muscular  sense,  and  the  senses  of 
sight,  touch,  and  hearing,  are  the  principal  channels 
of  perception. 

Attention. — Attention  is  dependent  upon  an  impor- 
tant fact  of  mental  life;  that  all  parts  of  conscious- 
ness are  not  equally  clear  or  intense  at  the  same  time. 
For  education,  attention  is  the  most  important  concept 


PSYCHOLOGY  13 

of  psychology,  as  all  knowledge  depends  upon  clear- 
ness of  mental  view.  The  slightest  introspection  will 
readily  reveal  the  characteristics  of  attentive  con- 
sciousness. The  state  of  mind  receiving  attention  be- 
comes clear,  distinct,  vivid,  and,  what  is  of  greatest 
importance,  significant;  that  is,  it  calls  up  and  fuses 
with  various  related  ideas.  The  significance  or 
"meaningfulness,"  resulting  from  attention  is  but  a 
form  of  apperception.  In  fact,  attention  and  apper- 
ception are  two  aspects  of  the  same  mental  condition. 
When  we  say  attention,  we  refer  particularly  to  the 
process,  whereas  apperception  refers  rather  to  the 
product,  the  whole  mental  state.  The  fuller  the  idea 
group,  the  keener  the  comprehension  and  the  easier  the 
retention.  If  we  compare  the  mind  to  a  hotel,  we  may 
say  that  the  mental  states  receiving  attention  are  the 
permanent  boarders,  and  the  others  are  mere  transient 
guests. 

In  the  light  of  what  has  just  been  said  about  ap- 
perceptive  systems,  a  new  significance  is  given  to  the 
query:  "To  how  many  things  can  we  attend  at 
once?"  It  comes  down  to  a  consideration  of  what 
we  mean  by  one  thing.  The  child  who  has  learned 
the  surface  and  drainage  of  a  continent  as  two  inter- 
related facts  naturally  groups  them.  In  fact,  in  at- 
tending to  them,  he  is  in  reality  attending  to  but  one 
thing.  E  pluribus  unum  is  the  real  maxim  of  intel- 
lectual education.  What  we  call  intellectual  power 
shows  itself  particularly  here.  To  Newton,  the  move- 
ment of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  the  facts  of  terres- 
trial gravitation  became  one  thing.  So  Napoleon  and 


14  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

Mozart — each  in  his  own  field — grasped  tremendous 
unities  where  the  ordinary  mind  would  be  lost  in  a 
maze  of  unrelated  detail. 

We  may  remark,  in  passing,  that  what  teachers  call 
inattention  is  generally  different  from  the.  state  of 
listlessness  to  which  psychologists  apply  the  term.  In 
the  class  room  the  inattentive  pupil  is  he  who  is  very 
intent  upon  something-  else.  Pedagogical  inattention 
is  thus  rather  an  ethical  than  a  psychological  condi- 
tion. The  pupil  is  inattentive  to  what  he  should  at- 
tend to. 

A  distinction  is  often  made  between  attention  with 
effort,  and  free  or  disinterested  attention.  The  former 
is  called  voluntary  and  the  latter  non-voluntary  atten- 
tion. Uncontrollable  attention  to  some  sudden  sight, 
sound,  etc.,  may  be  called  involuntary  attention. 

Representative  Consciousness. — All  mental  develop- 
ment depends  upon  the  power  of  retention.  Every 
percept  or  mental  state  leaves  a  physiological  modifica- 
tion which  may  or  may  not  cause  its  recall.  "We  give 
the  name  idea  to  recalled  mental  states  or  percepts. 
The  term  image  is  also  frequently  used.  If  the  idea 
or  image  closely  resembles  its  original,  and  is  thought 
of  as  belonging  to  some  definite  past  time,  we  are  said 
to  remember.  This  is  memory.  When  the  ideas  are 
not  definitely  localized  in  the  past,  or  are  combined 
in  various  new  ways,  we  call  the  process  imagination. 
The  recall  of  ideas,  whether  in  memory  or  imagination, 
depends  upon  certain  conditions,  which  have  been 
generalized  by  psychologists  into  the  "Laws  of  Asso- 
ciation. ' '  The  most  important  of  these  laws  are  those 


PSYCHOLOGY  15 

of  contiguity  and  similarity :  An  idea  A  tends  to  call 
up  the  idea  B  if  it  has  occurred  at  the  same  time  with 
it  in  past  experience  or  if  it  resembles  B.  (Contrast 
would  be  a  special  case  of  similarity.)  Moreover,  the 
recall  of  the  idea  B  would  depend  upon  the  frequency, 
recency,  intensity,  and  degree  of  organization  or  apper- 
ception of  its  connection  with  A.  The  pleasant  or  un- 
pleasant consequences  of  ideas  and  acts  are  potent 
influences  in  determining  associations  positively  or 
negatively.  Of  these  secondary  considerations,  fre- 
quency and  degree  of  organization  are  the  most  impor- 
tant. The  influence  of  recency  is  potent,  but  for  a 
short  time  only,  as  any  one  who  has  crammed  for  an 
examination  can  testify.  Intensity  as  a  force  for  re- 
call is  more  important.  The  efficiency  of  interest  as 
a  factor  of  instruction  depends  largely  upon  its  in- 
tensification of  ideas. 

In  popular  language,  imagination  is  often  confused 
with  fancy.  Psychologically  considered,  imagination 
is  any  form  of  mental  combination,  and  thus  bears  a 
vital  relation  to  all  acquisition  of  knowledge.  All 
learning  from  verbal  description  illustrates  imagin- 
ative activity.  It  is  here  particularly  that  the  teacher 
must  constantly  test  the  pupils.  Pictures  will  be 
found  a  tremendous  aid  to  imaginative  activity,  as  they 
bring  before  the  pupils  simultaneously  what  verbal 
descriptions  give  only  piecemeal  and  seriatim.  Train- 
ing the  imagination  is  not  a  matter  of  negative  con- 
trol, but  depends  rather  on  a  well  stored  and  well 
organized  mind.  The  habit  or  ideal  of  testing  im- 
aginative results  should  be  constantly  fostered.  Child- 


16  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

ish  flights  of  fancy  do  not  show,  as  is  popularly  sup- 
posed, that  children  have  stronger  imaginations  than 
adults,  but  serve  rather  to  indicate  the  absence  of  the 
inhibitive  influence  of  organized  knowledge. 

Creative  Imagination  and  Originality. — By  creative 
imagination  is  meant  not  the  creation  of  something 
absolutely  new,  but  rather  a  combination  of  old  ma- 
terials— ideas  or  images — in  a  new  way.  When  this 
combining  or  grouping  is  determined  by  criteria  or 
standards  possessed  by  the  individual  himself  the  work 
of  imagination  may  be  called  original.  From  this 
point  of  view,  sincerity  or  self-realization  lies  at  the 
basis  of  all  true  art.  The  child  who  takes  a  conven- 
tionalized flower  or  leaf  form,  and  develops  it  under 
the  guidance  of  a  controlling  decorative  idea  of  his 
own  is  to  that  extent  an  artist.  Utility  and  truth, 
as  well  as  beauty,  guide  imaginative  activity.  The 
inventor  and  mathematican  employ  imagination  quite 
as  much  as  the  sculptor  or  romancer.  Any  real  train- 
ing of  imagination  must  therefore  include  the  building 
up  of  good  standards  of  the  Greek  trinity — the  Good, 
the  Beautiful,  and  the  True. 

Kinds  of  Imagery. — Introspection  supplemented  by 
experimental  and  statistical  research  has  revealed  the 
fact  that  individuals  differ  greatly  in  mental  attri- 
butes. These  differences  are  probably  due  to  heredity 
and  chance  variation.  Perhaps  nowhere  are  the 
varieties  of  mental  life  so  strongly  in  evidence  as  in 
the  prominence  of  certain  types  of  imagery  in  different 
individuals.  Of  course,  every  kind  of  sensation  pro- 
duces within  each  brain  a  modification  which  may 


PSYCHOLOGY  17 

lead  to  the  recall  of  an  image.  These  images  are,  how- 
ever, of  very  different  degrees  of  intensity.  Tastes, 
smells,  and  various  organic  sensations  are  seldom 
clearly  recalled.  Sights,  sounds,  and  sensations  of 
movement  give  as  a  rule  much  more  vivid  images. 
We  use  the  terms  ' '  visiles, "  "  audiles, ' '  and  ' '  motiles ' ' 
to  designate  individuals  whose  imagery  is  predomi- 
nately visual,  auditory,  or  motor.  Much  so-called  vis- 
ual and  auditory  imagery  is  in  reality  motor.  The 
delicate  movements  of  the  eyes  in  the  one  case,  and  of 
the  articulatory  organs  in  the  other,  play  a  prominent 
part  in  the  production  of  these  images. 

Ideas  of  Relationship. — These  form  an  important 
class  of  ideas  which  are  not  precisely  images  of  sensa- 
tion. As  their  designation  indicates,  they  are  ideas  of 
relation  between  other  ideas.  These  relationship  ideas 
are  of  great  importance,  as  the  apprehension  of  rela- 
tionships is  a  distinguishing  characteristic  of  intelli- 
gence. The  mental  states  corresponding  to  such  words 
as  iff  and,  although,  but,  etc.,  illustrate  this  type  of 
idea.  Much  of  what  the  older  psychologists  called 
training  of  reason  might  be  epitomized  as  furnishing 
the  mind  with  a  stock  of  relationship  ideas,  and  giving 
the  pupil  practice  in  using  them.  It  is  from  this  point 
of  view,  rather  than  from  that  of  formal  discipline, 
that  we  are  justified  in  attributing  to  grammar  the 
power  of  logical  training. 

General  Ideas. — The  images  and  ideas  which  we  have 
hitherto  considered  have  been  of  individual  or  par- 
ticular experiences.  Most  ideas,  however,  are  not  of 
this  character.  When  we  say  "horse,"  or  "beauty," 


18  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

or  "king,"  we  are  thinking,  not  of  some  individual 
horse  or  beautiful  object  or  monarch,  but  rather  of  a 
class  to  which  these  individuals  belong.  Such  class 
ideas  are  called  by  various  names,  such  as  generic 
images,  notions,  or  concepts,  the  last  term  being  the  one 
most  commonly  used.  Most  concepts  are  formed  by 
the  aid  of  language.  It  is  probable  that  the  lower  ani- 
mals being  devoid  of  speech  are  also  devoid  of  general 
ideas.  Hearing  the  same  name  applied  to  a  number 
of  different  individuals  of  a  class,  an  association  is 
formed  between  the  name  and  the  essential  features, 
the  resulting  idea  being  what  psychologists  call  a  gen- 
eric image.  The  term  concept  is  applied  to  the  idea 
which  is  free  from  all  imagery,  the  word  simply  calling 
up  the  essential  features.  These  essential  features 
form  what  logicians  call  the  connotation  of  the  term. 
When  expressed  in  words  they  constitute  the  defini- 
tion. The  word  denotation  is  used  to  embrace  all  the 
objects  of  the  class.  Thus  the  connotation  of  * '  ocean ' ' 
would  include,  largeness,  salt  water,  etc. ;  the  denota- 
tion would  name  the  five  oceans.  When  the  connota- 
tion of  a  word  is  too  large,  its  denotation  becomes  too 
small,  and  vice  versa.  In  either  case  the  concept  is 
inaccurate.  A  child  who  includes  redness  in  the  con- 
notation of  "rose"  would  fail  to  recognize  a  white 
rose,  while  the  failure  to  include  gill  breathing  in  the 
connotation  of  fish  would  lead  to  calling  the  whale  a 
fish.  The  formation  of  clear  accurate  concepts  is  a 
large  part  of  the  process  of  education.  Eational  lan- 
guage study  hence  assumes  vital  importance. 
Definition. — The  purpose  of  definition  is  in  general 


PSYCHOLOGY  19 

to  fix  a  concept  after  it  is  formed.  Provisional,  tenta- 
tive definition  may,  however,  often  precede  the  full 
or  accurate  definition.  Thus  a  synonymous  expres- 
sion for  a  new  word  explaining  it  in  its  present  context 
is  often  sufficient  for  the  time  being.  The  old  educa- 
tion failed  in  that  it  demanded  exact  definition  before 
the  idea  was  formed  with  any  idea  of  definiteness.  A 
word  should  be  used  frequently  in  great  variety  of  de- 
notation before  a  definition  is  required.  It  is  only 
in  this  way  that  rational  mental  growth  can  be  ob- 
tained. The  concept  is  a  flower  whose  perfection  de- 
pends upon  a  fertile  perceptive  soil  and  constant 
nourishment.  To  teach  the  concept  "preposition"  to 
an  elementary  school  pupil  by  means  of  a  definition 
is  about  as  sensible  as  sticking  a  cut  rose  in  the  ground 
and  expecting  it  to  thrive.  In  fact,  we  go  through  life 
with  much  of  our  vocabulary  representing  unanalyzed, 
undefined  concepts.  Real  definition  is  usually  un- 
necessary except  in  connection  with  the  words  that  oc- 
cur in  our  special  line  of  interest  or  profession.  The 
grammar  school  pupil  who  can  unerringly  pick  out 
every  preposition  in  a  printed  page  and  explain  its 
use  has  accomplished  all  that  should  be  required,  and 
probably  has  a  better  grasp  of  the  subject  than  the 
pupil  who  can  glibly  recite  the  abstruse  definition. 
Definition  finds  its  more  appropriate  place  in  second- 
ary education,  although  even  here  its  use  is  beset 
with  grave  dangers. 

Judgment  and  Reasoning-. — When  we  affirm  or  deny 
something  of  something  else,  the  process  is  called 
judgment.  Expressed  in  words,  a  judgment  becomes 


20  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

a  proposition.  Thus  "Iron  is  a  metal"  is  a  proposi- 
tion. Logicians  call  iron  the  subject,  metal  the  predi- 
cate, and  is  the  connective  or  copula.  It  will  readily 
be  seen  that  accurate  judgment  depends  upon  accurate 
conception  and  on  the  powers  of  analysis  and  compari- 
son. 

Inference  or  reasoning  makes  use  of  judgments  to 
arrive  at  that  which  was  previously  unknown.  Rea- 
soning is  of  two  kinds,  inductive  and  deductive. 
Inductive  reasoning  proceeds  from  particular  observa- 
tions or  experiences  and  goes  to  general  truths  or  laws. 
Thus  the  law  of  gravitation  is  an  inductive  generaliza- 
tion based  upon  innumerable  experiences.  Deductive 
reasoning  goes  from  the  general  to  the  particular.  The 
mathematics  are  in  the  main  deductive.  Geometry, 
for  instance,  on  the  basis  of  general  definitions  and 
axioms,  demonstrates  a  great  variety  of  theorems.  In- 
ductive and  deductive  reasoning  are  closely  related, 
however,  deduction  constantly  verifying  the  validity 
of  inductive  generalizations  while  induction  groups 
and  tests  masses  of  deductive  inferences. 

Practically  all  explanation  is  deductive  in  character. 
It  consists  in  finding  the  general  law  under  which  the 
particular  problem  can  be  subsumed,  and  then  deduc- 
ing the  solution  from  the  general  law.  The  pupil  who 
knows  the  relationship  of  the  sides  of  a  right  triangle 
has  the  explanation  of  various  problems  as  soon  as 
he  understands  that  certain  lines  are  hypothenuse,  per- 
pendicular, etc.  To  prove  "  prompting'  '  a  specific 
case  of  dishonesty  or  deceit  will  generally  make  clear 
the  explanation  of  its  evils.  This  view  of  explanation 


PSYCHOLOGY  21 

will  be  found  to  be  of  great  service  in  countless  appli- 
cations of  pedagogic  method. 

The  Feelings  and  the  Will.— This  rough  sketch  of 
psychological  principles  would  be  incomplete  without 
some  slight  reference  to  the  feelings  and  the  will.  It 
may  suffice  to  remind  the  reader  that  the  mind  is  a 
unity.  We  must  constantly  be  on  our  guard  against 
too  mechanical  a  view  of  the  contents  of  consciousness. 
For  clearness  of  description,  the  powers  of  the  mind 
are  considered  separately,  but  in  reality,  no  such  sepa- 
ration exists.  Every  mental  state  is  not  only  intellec- 
tual but  affective  and  conative  as  well.  Of  the  various 
affective  states,  probably  the  most  important  for  edu- 
cation is  interest.  The  feeling  of  curiosity  or  wonder 
is  the  beginning  of  knowledge,  and  throughout  life, 
interest  engineers  the  mental  train.  The  development 
of  permanent  worthy  interests  is  essential  to  all  true 
education.  From  the  ethical  standpoint,  egoism  must 
gradually  give  way  to  altruism. 

So  far  as  the  will  is  concerned,  psychology's  most 
useful  contribution  to  pedagogy  has  been  that  of  the 
Herbartians.  Will  depends  upon  the  strength  and 
organization  of  apperceptive  systems.  Control  of  the 
will  means  practically  control  of  our  ideas.  A  mind 
well  stored  with  systematized  idea  groups,  constantly 
directed  by  worthy  interests  and  controlled  by  noble 
emotions  and  ideals,  represents  the  goal  of  educational 
endeavor.  In  other  words,  the  aim  of  education  is 
character. 


CHAPTER  III 
METHOD 

Method  vs.  Device. — It  is  the  purpose  of  this  chapter 
to  clear  up  some  misunderstandings  and  develop  some 
general  views  in  regard  to  method.  In  the  first  place, 
we  must  carefully  distinguish  between  method  and  de- 
vice. The  former  term  is  general,  the  latter  specific. 
That  interested  attention  is  necessary  to  lasting  knowl- 
edge is  a  fundamental  principle  of  method;  employ- 
ing colored  chalk  to  secure  this  attention  is  a  device. 
Much  pedagogic  literature  fails  of  its  purpose  because 
it  is  either  too  general  and  abstract  for  the  ordinary 
teachers  to  apply  or  too  specific  to  be  of  use  in  the 
diversity  of  situations  in  actual  class-room  work.  Real 
pedagogy  should  inspire,  but  it  must  also  direct.  Mis- 
guided enthusiasm  is  almost  as  bad  as  lifeless  instruc- 
tion. The  philosophy  of  sound  method  is  of  inestim- 
able value  to  the  teacher  in  so  far  as  it  gives  her  a 
scientific  attitude  toward  reforms  as  distinguished 
from  fads.  The  live  teacher  who  attempts  to  keep 
abreast  of  the  times  is  called  upon  almost  daily  to 
make  this  distinction. 

Education  and  Training. — Every  teacher  who  pre- 
tends to  be  an  educator  should  grasp  the  distinction 
between  education  and  training.  The  word  training, 

22 


METHOD  23 

strictly  considered,  should  be  applied  only  to  the  brute 
creation,  very  young  children  and  the  feeble  minded. 
It  is  nothing  more  or  less  than  building  up  associations 
on  the  basis  of  their  pleasant  or  unpleasant  conse- 
quences. The  colt  which  feels  the  pain  of  the  bit 
whenever  he  does  the  wrong  thing,  soon  ceases.  Many 
specific  associations  of  this  kind  are  made  until  all 
are  formed  that  the  animal's  master  thinks  desirable. 
Training  is  then  complete.  Education,  on  the  other 
hand,  begins  with  training,  but  goes  far  beyond  any 
system  of  mere  associations.  While  pleasant  and  un- 
pleasant consequences  of  acts  still  have  considerable 
motive  power,  the  mind  is  governed  by  general  ideas 
and  principles,  instead  of  by  specific  images.  The 
growth  of  language  has  an  important  bearing  upon 
the  growth  of  education.  The  educated  person,  by 
means  of  his  stock  of  generalizations,  can  react  to  novel 
situations  in  novel  ways.  Judgment  and  reasoning 
take  the  place  of  mere  association.  In  this  sense, 
man  is,  as  Rosenkranz  points  out,  the  only  educable 
being. 

Recapitulation. — The  doctrine  of  evolution  has  led 
practically  all  modern  scientists  to  view  humanity  as 
but  a  link  in  the  chain  of  the  animal  creation.  This 
doctrine  has  had  a  profound  influence  not  only  upon 
biology,  but  upon  psychology  and  pedagogy  as  well. 
Among  its  numerous  implications,  that  which  interests 
us  particularly  is  the  theory  of  recapitulation.  Baldly 
stated,  this  theory  maintains  that  each  individual  goes 
through  somewhat  the  same  course  of  development  as 
the  race.  The  necessary  inclusion  of  the  word  ' '  some- 


24  INSTRUCTION  IN   THE   GRADES 

what"  indicates  the  uncertainty  of  the  applications  of 
the  theory.  We  could  scarcely  demand,  for  example, 
because  the  religious  development  of  the  race  has  been 
from  polytheism  to  monotheism  that  such  should  be  the 
religious  education  of  each  individual.  The  fact,  how- 
ever, that  oral  language  was  used  for  perhaps  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  years  before  written  characters 
were  invented,  has  an  important  bearing  upon  instruc- 
tion in  written  and  oral  speech.  The  greatest  value 
of  the  theory  of  recapitulation,  so  far  as  education  is 
concerned,  seems  to  lie  in  its  reinforcement  or  eorrob- 
oration  of  principles  worked  out  on  a  psychological 
or  experimental  basis.  An  illustration  of  this  is  af- 
forded by  the  intellectual  epochs  or  stages  of  develop- 
ment from  the  predominance  of  perception  in  child- 
hood through  imaginative  activity  in  youth  to  the 
logical  process  of  manhood.  Again  the  pedagogical 
maxims :  *  *  Proceed  from  the  simple  to  the  complex, ' ' 
''from  the  vague  to  the  definite,"  ''from  the  experi- 
mental to  the  scientific"  receive  additional  force  and 
confirmation  from  the  Recapitulation  Theory. 

The  Fundamental  Steps. — There  are  three  fundamen- 
tal phases  of  every  real  teaching  process,  viz.,  prepara- 
tion, instruction  (sometimes  called  presentation)  and 
fixing,  Although  these  three  phases  often  overlap, 
they  should  be  considered  separately. 

The  first  of  these,  though  extremely  important,  is 
sometimes  disregarded.  In  teaching  any  subject  the 
first  question  to  be  considered  is  one  of  ejective  knowl- 
edge. "What  ideas  are  now  in  the  pupils'  minds 
which  can  be  used  as  an  apperceptive  basis  for  the  new 


METHOD  25 

lesson  ?"  "To  what  extent  must  they  be  intensified, 
cleared  up,  rearranged  or  otherwise  modified?" 
Sometimes  several  lessons  must  be  entirely  devoted 
to  the  stage  of  preparation.  Oftentimes  the  most  ef- 
fective preparation  consists  in  arousing  in  the  pupils' 
minds  the  feeling  of  the  need  of  the  new  knowledge. 
This  amounts  to  a  state  of  expectant  attention — a 
most  favorable  receptive  attitude.  A  child  who  has 
solved  problems  involving  the  square  roots  of  perfect 
squares  such  as  9,  36,  etc.,  is  apt  to  be  ready  for  the 
explanation  of  the  process  of  extracting  the  square 
root  of  8. 

Instruction. — Under  this  head  might  be  included  all 
pedagogic  method,  but  I  limit  the  term  to  that  impor- 
tant phase  of  the  teaching  process  intervening  between 
Preparation  and  Fixing.  By  far  the  most  important 
principle  of  instruction  is  that  of  Self  Activity.  As 
was  pointed  out  in  the  previous  chapter,  the  uncer- 
tainty of  ejective  knowledge,  even  if  there  were  no 
other  reason,  would  render  self  activity  indispensable. 
A  teacher  may  describe  and  explain  never  so  elabor- 
ately, and  still  her  instruction  may  reach  but  a  portion 
of  the  class.  No  two  minds  work  at  exactly  the  same 
rate  or  in  exactly  the  same  way.  The  pupil  who  finds 
out  something  for  himself  has  not  only  the  something 
but  also  the  mental  organization  involved  in  the  proc- 
ess of  getting  it,  not  merely  the  flower  but  the  root 
and  branch  as  well.  The  mental  flower  thus  grown 
will  thrive  and  new  buds  will  spring  from  the  same 
stem.  This  is  not  a  mere  figurative  analogy,  but  one 
that  will  justify  faithful  application.  But  self  ac- 


26  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

tivity  requires  constant  watching  and  guidance.  If 
the  class,  as  a  whole,  is  to  attain  the  intellectual  goal  E, 
let  the  teacher  set  up  a  number  of  intermediate  goals, 
A,  B,  C,  D,  each  of  which  is  to  be  reached  by  the  pu- 
pils' own  exertions.  By  careful  tests  and  individual 
observation  see  that  A  has  been  reached  before  B  is  at- 
tempted. So  long  as  systems  of  class-room  organiza- 
tion require  that  all  the  pupils  of  a  certain  grade  shall 
be  driven  abreast,  hopeless  differences  of  intellectual 
level  must  be  avoided.  Of  course  there  are  many 
things  which  a  class  must  be  told,  many  things  which 
it  would  be  a  waste  of  time  to  attempt  to  develop. 
Nothing  but  tact  and  pedagogic  insight  can  decide 
these  points.  In  spite  of  some  recent  slurs  and  bur- 
lesques upon  the  development  methods  of  instruction, 
it  is  probably  true  that  most  teachers  tell  their  classes 
too  much,  and  miss  many  splendid  opportunities  for 
self  activity. 

Analogy  from  Mechanics. — Much  of  the  telling  or  ex- 
plaining that  goes  on  in  the  class-room  results  from  the 
fear  that  too  much  time  will  be  required  for  self  active 
methods.  This  is  usually  an  unwarranted  and  falla- 
cious fear.  Short-cut  methods  in  education  are  gener- 
ally bad.  A  few  things,  known  thoroughly  and 
worked  out  by  the  pupils  themselves,  will  often  ex- 
pedite the  acquisition  of  subsequent  knowledge.  We 
gain  time  by  losing  it.  The  well  known  mechanical 
principle  of  the  lever  has  an  illumining  bearing  upon 
education.  An  important  form  of  leverage  consists 
in  gaining  power  at  the  expense  of  time.  By  a  proper 
system  of  pulleys,  one  man  can,  though  very  slowly, 


METHOD  27 

raise  a  weight  of  ten  tons  or  more.  What  is  lost  in 
velocity  is  gained  in  power.  So  it  is  in  education. 
Where  no  time  is  wasted  but  serious  work  earnestly 
and  steadily  performed,  a  tremendous  mental  power 
may  be  developed,  a  power  which  will  render  the  ac- 
quisition of  later  knowledge  easier  and  more  expedi- 
tious. The  stored-up  energy  will,  as  it  were,  readily 
convert  itself  into  subsequent  velocity. 

Kinds  of  Instruction. — Many  different  types  or  kinds 
of  lessons  have  been  described  and  named  by  educators. 
Many  of  them,  such  as  the  Socratic,  are  really  included 
under  self  activity.  This  method,  named  for  the 
Greek  philosopher,  is  generally  applied  to  that  form  of 
instruction  which  consists  in  classifying,  arranging, 
and  oftentimes  labeling  knowledge  already  in  the  pu- 
pils' minds.  The  teacher  questions  so  as  to  bring  out 
the  desired  points,  e.  g.,  any  grammar  school  child  has 
sufficient  knowledge  of  nouns  and  verbs  to  render  the 
Socratic  teaching  of  these  parts  of  speech  relatively 
simple. 

The  terms  inductive  and  deductive,  as  applied  to 
method,  are  self-explanatory.  Where  generalizations 
are  to  be  taught,  the  teacher  should  see  to  it  that  suffi- 
cient details  are  grasped  by  the  pupil  to  be  used  as  a 
rational  basis  for  the  law  or  principle.  This  is  in- 
ductive. The  rules  of  spelling  illustrate  a  series  of 
such  generalizations  which  grammar  school  pupils 
might  advantageously  work  out  inductively.  The  de- 
ductive method  is  exemplified  in  every  case  where  a 
general  principle  is  appealed  to  to  explain  some  par- 
ticular fact.  Much  of  the  teacher's  work  is  thus  de- 


28  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

ductive  in  character,  e.  g.,  the  respiratory  movements 
are  most  satisfactorily  taught  as  deduced  from  the 
laws  of  atmospheric  pressure. 

Analytic  and  Synthetic  should  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  Inductive  and  Deductive  methods. 
Analysis  proceeds  from  the  whole  to  the  parts.  An 
analytic  method  of  teaching  reading  starts  with  the 
sentence,  then  takes  the  words  and  finally  the  com- 
ponent sounds.  Synthesis,  on  the  other  hand,  begins 
with  the  parts  and  builds  up  the  whole.  A  syn- 
thetic method  of  teaching  geography  would  begin,  not 
with  the  world  as  a  whole,  but  with  the  various  land 
and  water  divisions  and  combine  them  into  a  mental 
world.  Analysis  and  synthesis  supplement  and  com- 
plete each  other. 

The  Type  Method,  as  its  name  implies,  consists  in 
building  up  a  typical  or  representative  view.  It  aims 
at  the  same  end  as  the  Inductive  Method  but  attempts 
to  attain  it  in  a  different  way.  Instead  of  a  number 
of  individual  cases  being  examined  and  compared,  one 
typical  case  is  minutely  and  elaborately  considered, 
care  being  taken  that  the  salient  or  essential  charac- 
teristics shall  stand  out  prominently.  The  connota- 
tion is  thus  emphasized  as  it  would  be  in  a  definition, 
but  the  elaborateness  and  interest  of  this  method  lift 
it  far  above  mere  defining.  We  may  take  an  illus- 
tration from  the  study  of  United  States  history.  The 
early  voyages  of  discovery  and  exploration  had  many 
points  in  common.  Instead  of  studying  each  one  sepa- 
rately and  independently,  one  should  be  taken  and 
taught  in  as  interesting  and  elaborate  a  manner  as 


METHOD  29 

desirable.  The  other  voyages  could  then  be  taught  in 
reference  to  the  type,  differentiating  points  being  em- 
phasized. Teachers  will  find  the  type  method  of 
teaching  an  interesting  way  of  presenting  a  great  va- 
riety of  topics. 

The  Lecture  Method  has  little,  if  any,  place  in  the 
elementary  school.  Except  as  illustrated  by  lantern 
views  or  other  objective  helps,  this  method  is  risky, 
even  in  secondary  education.  Its  lack  of  appeal  to 
self  activity  is  its  principal  condemnation.  In  con- 
nection with  university  work  where  the  subject  mat- 
ter is  not  to  be  had  in  book  form  or  so  scattered  as 
to  be  practically  inaccessible,  the  lecture  method  may 
become  necessary. 

The  Text  Book  as  a  method  of  teaching  is  capable 
of  various  uses.  It  is  highly  important  that  the  pupil 
should  be  able  to  obtain  knowledge  from  the  printed 
page.  To  help  him  to  do  this  is  an  essential  part  o'f 
the  teacher's  work.  A  simple  and  helpful  method  is 
to  require  the  pupils  to  write  the  answers  to  some 
carefully  selected  questions.  Study  of  a  text — either 
in  school  or  at  home — can  thus  be  given  a  much  needed 
definiteness.  The  giving  of  these  questions  may  either 
follow  or  precede  the  teaching  of  the  lesson.  With 
older  pupils,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  them  write  the 
questions  and  then  distribute  commendation  accord- 
ing to  the  insight  shown  into  the  salient  features  of 
the  lesson.  Practice  in  abstracting  portions  of  the 
text  is  invaluable  for  older  pupils.  This  is  as  diffi- 
cult to  do  well  as  it  is  useful,  and  requires  the  teach- 
er's constant  guidance.  These  are  but  a  few  sugges- 


30  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

tions  of  ways  in  which  the  text  book  may  be  made  a 
definite  help.  Unfortunately  some  teachers  still  as- 
sign pages  to  be  studied  with  no  suggestion  or  direc- 
tions as  to  how  to  do  it.  Their  vexation  at  the  re- 
sults of  such  assignments  is  ample  retribution  for 
them,  but  what  about  the  children  ? 

Fixing. — After  the  instruction  or  presentation,  and 
often  during  it,  comes  the  factor  of  fixing  what  has 
been  learned.  By  fixing,  I  mean  more  than  mere  re- 
tention or  power  of  recall.  I  mean  that  thorough 
organization  of  the  knowledge  that  will  serve  to  recall 
it  at  the  proper  time  and  in  the  proper  way.  Knowl- 
edge is  not  really  fixed  until  it  is  an  integral  part 
of  the  whole  mental  content,  until  it  is  bound  up  with 
worthy  motives  and  ideals  and  can  be  applied  intelli- 
gently. Thus  the  fixing  of  knowledge  becomes  the 
most  important  aim  of  teaching.  What  we  call  drill 
is,  of  course,  a  part  of  the  fixing  process.  Repetition 
is  necessary  to  give  the  knowledge  permanent  mental 
lodgment.  But  this  repetition  must  not  be  lifeless, 
not  monotonous  and  dull.  The  absence  of  novelty 
must  be  compensated  for,  else  interest  will  flag.  A 
large  factor  of  the  teacher's  success  consists  in  her 
ability  skilfully  to  disguise  repetition.  Reviews  are 
of  extreme  importance.  They  should  not  be  a  mere 
rehash  of  the  subject  matter,  but  should  present  it  in 
fresh  guise,  emphasizing  wherever  possible,  larger 
unities  and  new  relationships,  thus  weaving  the  knowl- 
edge into  the  whole  mental  fabric.  More  important 
still,  reviews  should  reveal  new  and  interesting  appli- 
cations of  what  has  been  learned.  In  this  manner  the 


METHOD  31 

practical  or  ethical  end  of  teaching  is  secured  and  it 
approximates  or  actually  becomes  real  education. 

Learn  to  Do  by  Doing. — Although  almost  all  that  has 
been  described  above  in  regard  to  method  has  had 
reference  to  intellectual  development,  the  same  princi- 
ples apply  with  equal  force  to  the  active  or  doing  side 
of  mind.  The  old  adage  "We  learn  to  do  by  doing" 
has  a  sound  psychological  basis.  Just  as  in  the  growth 
of  intelligence  the  concept  properly  formed  is  the 
flowering  of  a  varied  perceptive  experience,  so  in  the 
arts,  muscular  facility  or  proficiency  is  the  outgrowth 
of  a  number  of  distinct  attempts.  The  result  is  a 
motor  attitude — a  kind  of  muscular  concept.  This 
arises  from  repeated  associations  between  the  essential 
movements  and  the  desired  result.  The  superfluous 
or  accidental  movements  come  to  be  ignored  and 
omitted,  until  finally  there  remain  only  those  move- 
ments which  are  necessary.  The  teacher  can  expedite 
the  process  by  commending  good  attempts,  by  em- 
phasizing the  essential  factors  and  discouraging  the 
unnecessary.  The  force  of  example  is  also  potent. 
Grace  is  the  aesthetic  description  of  the  absolute  elimi- 
nation of  the  unessential  elements.  The  pupils  *  own 
efforts  are  as  indispensable  in  acquiring  a  manual  art 
as  they  are  perhaps  in  the  building  up  of  the  concept. 

The  Test. — It  is  the  uncertainty  of  ejective  knowl- 
edge which  makes  necessary  constant  testing.  This 
will  be  an  essential  factor  of  the  teaching  process 
until  phrenology,  telepathy,  or  some  other  way  of  get- 
ting at  the  mental  contents  of  others  has  been  per- 
fected. This  is  as  likely  as  the  establishment  of  com- 


32  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

munication  with  Mars — not  impossible  but  not  apt 
to  occur  tomorrow.  In  the  meantime,  the  teacher 
must  not  be  misled  by  prompt  responses  of  a  few  bright 
pupils  into  the  belief  that  the  class  as  a  whole  com- 
prehends her  instruction.  Nor  can  polite,  quiet  de- 
meanor always  be  construed  as  indicating  real  atten- 
tion. This  if  any  phase  of  the  teaching  process  de- 
mands eternal  vigilance.  Tests  may  be  formal  or  in- 
formal, oral  or  written.  They  enter  with  equal 
importance  into  each  of  the  three  steps — preparation, 
instruction,  fixing. 

The  term  recitation  has  often  been  used  to  mean  an 
exercise  where  the  pupils'  knowledge  is  tested  and  the 
results,  it  may  be,  recorded.  Recitation  is  one  of  the 
altogether  too  numerous  pedagogical  terms  which  have 
been  used  in  so  many  different  senses  as  to  be  rendered 
almost  worthless.  Although  used  by  some  writers  in 
so  broad  a  sense  as  to  include  the  entire  process  of 
teaching,  usage  seems  to  warrant  the  application  of 
the  term  to  the  testing  (usually  oral)  of  the  pupils' 
knowledge.  It  is  in  this  sense  that  the  term  will  be 
used  in  this  book. 

The  oral  work  of  the  pupil  is  frequently  much  more 
than  test.  It  is  good  teaching  oftentimes  to  require 
a  pupil  to  recite  that  which  we  are  sure  he  knows 
thoroughly.  Self-confidence  as  well  as  a  more  com- 
plete organization  of  his  knowledge  result  from  such 
exercises.  The  bright  pupil  should  be  given  more  op- 
portunity to  express  himself.  Docendo  discimus 
might  be  construed  by  the  pupil  as  "We  learn  by  re- 
citing." 


METHOD  33 

The  Examination. — This  term  is  also  indefinite. 
Usage  seems  to  restrict  it  to  a  kind  of  formal  test 
(generally,  though  not  always,  written)  of  a  rather 
extensive  character.  Examination  is  a  test  of  work 
covering  a  rather  long  period — a  month  or  a  term — or 
of  the  completion  of  a  certain  portion  of  the  course. 
Such  reviews  undoubtedly  have  great  value.  Not  only 
does  the  examination  give  the  pupil  a  means  of  ap- 
praising his  own  progress,  but  the  intensive  prepara- 
tion which  it  necessitates  is  especially  valuable  to  older 
pupils.  Examinations  have  fallen  into  some  disrepute 
in  various  sections  of  the  country,  largely  because  they 
have  attempted  to  test  the  pupils'  fitness  for  promo- 
tion as  well  as  to  establish  for  the  teacher  a  standard 
of  work.  As  was  pointed  out  long  ago  by  E.  Emerson 
White,  this  double  attempt  is  foredoomed  to  failure. 
The  logical  person  to  give  the  examination  is  the 
teacher  herself.  Occasionally  she  may  profit  consider- 
ably by  an  examination  assigned  by  some  one  else — 
principal  or  superintendent.  Such  examinations 
should  be  prepared  with  the  greatest  care,  so  that  the 
work  may  be  really  standardized.  Properly  con- 
ducted, they  are  inspiring  to  both  teacher  and  pupil. 
They  should  as  a  rule  be  unheralded  and  in  no  way 
influence  the  promotion  of  the  pupils. 

The  Program. — Writers  on  education  emphasize  the 
fact  that  certain  subjects  are  more  fatiguing  than 
others,  require  more  concentration  or  effort.  It  is 
natural  to  put  these  subjects  in  those  parts  of  the 
day  when  the  mind  is  most  vigorous.  This  would  be 
early  in  the  morning  session  or  after  a  period  of  re- 


34  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

laxation.  There  is  considerable  ambiguity  in  these 
statements.  Mathematics  is  generally  regarded  as  a 
difficult  subject,  yet  some  portions  of  it  are  decidedly 
easier  than  many  parts  of  history  or  geography. 
Most  educators  put  gymnastics  among  the  very  fatigu- 
ing subjects.  Others  regard  it  as  a  form  of  relaxation. 
The  fact  of  the  matter  seems  to  be  that  the  learning 
of  new  gymnastic  movements  does  make  a  considerable 
demand  upon  voluntary  attention,  whereas  the  prac- 
tice of  movements  which  have  become  automatic  fur- 
nishes a  good  form  of  rhythmic  relaxation.  The  learn- 
ing of  any  new  subject  requires  concentration.  It  is 
therefore  a  mistake  to  relegate  any  particular  subject 
to  the  fag  end  of  each  day.  Every  program  should  be 
flexible  enough  to  admit  of  shifting  subjects  from  day 
to  day.  It  is  probably  an  unwise  procedure  to  pre- 
pare a  definite  program  for  a  longer  period  than  a 
week.  It  is  also  necessary  to  remember  that  young 
children  cannot  concentrate  for  so  long  a  period  as 
older  pupils.  The  length  of  a  lesson  demanding  at- 
tention varies  from  about  ten  or  fifteen  minutes  in 
first  grade  to  thirty  or  forty-five  minutes  in  the  highest 
grades  and  high  school.  To  a  certain  extent,  relaxa- 
tion is  provided  by  suitable  changes  of  subjects.  For 
example,  a  difficult  arithmetic  lesson  might  wisely  be 
followed  by  rote  singing  or  automatic  gymnastics; 
grammar  by  history,  etc.  It  is  no  easy  matter  to  ar- 
range a  satisfactory  program.  The  considerations 
above  outlined  will  be  found  helpful.  Of  course,  re- 
cesses or  periods  of  complete  relaxation  must  also  be 
provided.  The  time  allotment  for  the  various  sub- 


METHOD  35 

jects  has  not  been  discussed  in  this  connection,  as  it 
is  generally  provided  for  by  the  superintendent  or 
principal. 

Correlation. — As  was  pointed  out  in  the  previous 
chapter  under  attention  and  apperception,  the  really 
educated  mind  is  the  well  organized  or  systematized 
mind.  The  application  of  this  psychological  fact  is 
too  obvious  to  need  further  illustration.  The  term 
correlation  is  often  applied  to  the  grouping  or  con- 
necting of  kinds  of  knowledge.  Countless  opportuni- 
ties for  correlation  will  present  themselves  to  the  live 
teacher.  The  land  and  water  divisions  of  eastern 
America  can  be  most  economically  taught  synchron- 
ously with  the  history  of  the  early  explorations.  The 
correlation  of  certain  laws  of  physics  with  the  teach- 
ing of  physiology  will  be  apparent.  If  dictation  ex- 
ercises are  used,  they  would  better  furnish  drill  or 
review  of  topics  already  learned.  So  various  mathe- 
matical problems  give  similar  opportunities.  Thought- 
ful correlation  will  enable  the  teacher  to  do  more  ef- 
fective work  in  a  shorter  time.  Many  of  the  so-called 
ills  of  an  overcrowded  curriculum  may  thus  be  rem- 
edied. At  the  same  time,  there  is  secured  for  the  pu- 
pils the  larger  educational  good  of  mental  organiza- 
tion. 


PART  II— METHODOLOGY 

CHAPTER  IV 
READING 

What  Reading  Is. — Reading  has  secured  its  promi- 
nent place  as  the  first  of  the  three  R's  by  merit  and 
not  by  mere  tradition.  Like  many  other  educational 
terms,  the  word  reading  is  used  in  different  senses. 
There  are  at  least  two  widely  different  notions  im- 
plied in  the  term,  first,  getting  the  meaning  from  the 
written  or  printed  page,  and,  second,  uttering  the 
words  aloud  for  others  to  understand.  These  two  no- 
tions are  so  distinct  that  I  reserve  the  second  for  sep- 
arate treatment  under  the  head  of  Oral  Expression. 
It  would  undoubtedly  be  a  great  gain  if  these  two 
notions  were  kept  more  distinct  in  the  class-room. 
This  chapter  will  concern  itself  entirely  with  reading 
in  the  first  sense — getting  the  meaning  from  the  re- 
corded words.  Two  fundamental  problems  press  for 
solution;  first,  teaching  the  child  how  to  read,  and, 
second,  determining  what  he  shall  read.  The  first 
is  a  problem  of  pedagogical  mechanics;  the  second 
practically  identifies  reading  with  literature  in  its 
broadest  sense. 

Value  of  Reading. — The  great  value  of  reading  (in 
37 


38  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

the  first  sense)  is  evident.  So  essential  is  reading  to 
any  kind  of  proper  or  useful  citizenship  that  many 
governments  have  made  school  attendance  compulsory. 
The  time  is  probably  not  far  off  when  none  but  the 
mentally  deficient  will  be  unable  to  read.  I  need  not 
dwell  upon  this  obvious  utilitarian  value.  As  a  means 
of  aiding  in  the  attainment  of  happiness,  the  ability 
to  read  is  also  of  great  value.  The  educated  man  is 
never  lonely  while  he  has  a  book.  The  inexhaustible 
ocean  of  literature  ripples  along  the  glimmering  sands 
or  dashes  its  spray  against  the  rocks  for  an  appre- 
ciative reading  world.  There  is  an  old  German  adage 
that  man  is  what  he  eats ;  it  would  be  truer  to  say  that 
man  is  what  he  reads.  So  far  as  the  happiness  and 
moral  values  of  reading  are  concerned,  the  schools 
can  give  to  their  pupils  nothing  better  than  a  taste 
for  good  literature. 

Primary  Beading. — The  method  of  beginning  read- 
ing has  been  a  prolific  source  of  dispute  among  writers 
on  education.  The  end  to  be  attained  is  simple  so  far 
as  its  statement  goes,  viz.,  to  enable  the  child  to 
translate  immediately  the  visual  symbol  (the  written 
or  printed  word)  into  the  auditory  and  articulatory 
symbol  (the  spoken  word).  The  nature  of  the  lan- 
guage will,  of  course,  influence  the  methods  to  be  used. 
In  an  unalphabetical  language,  like  the  Chinese,  there 
must  be  a  separate  association  between  each  word  and 
its  idea.  In  a  phonetic  language,  like  German,  the 
task  is  comparatively  simple.  In  English,  the  teach- 
ing of  reading  is  tremendously  complicated  by  the 
silent  letters  and  varieties  of  sound  for  the  same  let- 


READING  39 

ter.  The  so-called  absurdities  of  English  spelling  (of 
course  they  are  not  absurdities,  but  results  of  well 
known  historic  causes)  have  led  to  a  number  of  special 
devices  to  facilitate  the  first  teaching  of  reading. 

The  Psychological  Basis  of  Reading. — The  child 
comes  to  school  with  a  considerable  vocabulary.  Even 
at  the  age  of  three  or  four,  children  can  often  converse 
quite  glibly.  All  their  words  are  symbols  of  more  or 
less  distinct  ideas.  These  ideas  may  be  of  objects,  ac- 
tions, feelings,  classes,  relationships,  or  what-not. 
Most  of  them  are  somewhat  general  in  character. 
When  a  young  child  of  four  or  five  years  hears  the 
word  ' '  dog, ' '  it  probably  calls  up  a  hazy  generic  image 
of  dog  as  a  class  idea.  In  other  words,  the  spoken  or 
heard  word  has  associated  itself  with  an  idea  of  a  some- 
what general  or  conceptual  character.  If  this  repre- 
sents the  condition  of  the  pupil's  mental  content  on 
first  entering  school,  it  would  seem  unpsychological  to 
attempt  to  build  up  new  associations  between  the  visual 
symbol  and  the  general  ideas.  Rather  let  the  old  as- 
sociations with  the  auditory  symbol  stand,  and  connect 
the  new  visual  symbol  with  the  auditory.  It  will  not 
be  long  before  the  visual  will  at  once  call  up  the  idea, 
but  it  should  do  so  at  first  through  the  medium  of  the 
spoken  word.  When  the  written  or  printed  word 
"cat"  unfailingly  suggests  the  spoken  word  cat  to  the 
child,  the  teacher  may  feel  satisfied  that  he  can  read 
the  word.  He  may  not  be  able  to  describe  or  define 
a  cat,  but  the  teacher's  specific  work  in  this  case  is 
reading,  not  zoology.  Illustrations  add  greatly  to  the 
interest  of  a  reading  primer,  but  they  should  not  be. 


40  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

used  instead  of  words.  The  written  word  does  not 
stand  fundamentally  for  the  object,  but  for  the  spoken 
word.  What  is  the  teacher  who  insists  upon  the  writ- 
ten words  calling  up  the  objects  going  to  do  with  those 
easy  words  like  if,  go,  with,  and,  etc.  ? 

Considerable  corroboration  is  given  to  the  theory 
here  maintained  by  the  Recapitulation  doctrine.  When 
we  consider  how  recent  has  been  the  invention  of  writ- 
ing, we  can  realize  that  for  ages  the  great  concepts  of 
life  and  destiny  as  well  as  countless  less  important 
generalizations  have  been  crystalized  in  oral  and  audi- 
tory symbols.  It  is  but  natural  that  the  life  of  the 
child  should  take  the  same  course. 

Sight  Words. — It  is  a  good  plan,  and  one  often  fol- 
lowed, to  begin  the  work  in  reading  by  teaching  a 
number  of  familiar  words  in  short  sentences.  These 
words,  known  as  sight  words,  form  the  basis  of  sub- 
sequent work.  They  should  be  words  taken  from  the 
vocabulary  of  the  pupils  in  the  class.  This  is  im- 
portant as  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  from  the 
very  beginning  the  pupils  should  regard  writing  or 
printing  as  but  another  kind  of  symbolism.  Again, 
consideration  should  be  given  in  the  selection  to 
words  which  will  furnish  suitable  material  for  later 
phonic  analysis.  The  first  month  of  the  term  might 
be  well  spent  in  familiarizing  the  class  with  a  number 
of  sight  words,  using  them  in  various  interesting  com- 
binations and  encouraging  the  pupils  to  suggest  little 
sentences  and  write  them  upon  the  blackboard  and 
on  paper  at  their  seats. 

Teaching  Phonetics. — The  title  of  this  paragraph 


READING  41 

sounds  rather  ambitious  as  applied  to  the  teaching 
of  first  grade  pupils.  Still,  an  elementary  course  in 
phonetics  seems  the  only  rational  way  of  unlocking 
for  the  children  the  doors  to  the  rapid,  successful  ac- 
quisition of  reading.  As  was  stated  above,  the  mat- 
ter is  complicated  by  the  unphonetic  character  of  the 
English  language.  Various  systems  have  been  de- 
vised to  overcome  the  difficulty.  The  names  of  the 
letters,  as  in  the  old  alphabetic  method,  are  no  longer 
used.  They  added  obviously  one  more  complication. 
If  our  letter  names  had  been  as  distinct  from  the 
sounds  as  was  the  case  in  Greek,  they  would  not  have 
constituted  such  a  disturbing  factor.  Each  letter 
should  be  a  visual  symbol  suggesting  a  certain  sound. 
All  the  interesting  devices  possible,  pictorial  or  other, 
should  be  used  to  intensify  these  associations.  They 
must  be  fixed  by  drill.  Silent  letters  may  at  first 
be  indicated  either  by  a  light  line  drawn  through  the 
letter  or  a  variation  in  type,  the  latter  method  being 
perhaps  the  preferable.  There  are  various  combina- 
nations  of  letters  (compound  phonograms)  which 
have  the  same  sound  in  numerous  words  (ough  is  not 
one  of  them).  Ight,  tion,  am,  etc.,  illustrate  such 
groups.  These  may  profitably  be  taught  as  compound 
symbols,  receiving  the  same  kind  of  drill  as  the  in- 
dividual letters.  The  synthesis  or  blending  of  the 
phonic  elements  of  a  word  is  an  important  and  in- 
trinsically interesting  exercise. 

Although  phonetics,  as  above  outlined,  furnishes  the 
key  to  ever  so  many  words,  there  remains  a  great 
number  in  the  unclassified  column.  All  of  them  have 


42  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

some  phonetic  element,  even  aisle  contains  an  i  and 
and  I.  It  is  of  doubtful  wisdom  to  attempt  to  give 
the  pupils  rational  associations  with  such  words.  The 
phonetic  elements  in  the  words  will  probably  make 
some  appeal  to  the  pupils  anyway.  These  words  are 
best  taught  as  wholes,  to  be  recognized  promptly  and 
pronounced  when  seen.  The  writing  of  such  words 
involving,  as  it  does,  an  exact  knowledge  of  their 
letters  will  be  considered  in  a  subsequent  chapter  on 
spelling. 

Script  and  Printing. — It  seems  desirable  that  the  be- 
ginnings of  reading  and  writing  should  go  hand  in 
hand.  This  necessitates  that  the  first  reading  shall 
be  from  script  letters.  It  would  be  confusing  to  use 
both  the  script  and  print  forms.  The  transition  can 
readily  be  made  later.  It  should  not  be  attempted 
before  a  good  stock  of  sight  words  has  been  acquired. 
In  fact,  it  would  not  be  amiss  to  spend  the  entire  first 
term  on  script  forms  alone.  The  transition  to  print 
will  be  rendered  easier  if  the  system  of  penmanship 
is  comparatively  simple,  i.  e.,  if  it  approximates  the 
print  forms. 

Learning  the  Alphabet. — Learning  one's  A,  B,  C's, 
as  the  cornerstone  of  education,  still  maintains  much 
of  its  traditional  force.  This  is  especially  true  of 
persons  not  pedagogically  trained.  The  names  of 
the  letters  in  their  proper  order  has  considerable 
utilitarian  value,  as  the  alphabetical  order  is  the 
natural  one  in  dictionaries,  directories,  various  books 
of  reference,  indexes,  etc.  The  child  would  scarcely 
have  occasion  to  need  the  alphabet  before  the  third 


READING  43 

year  of  school  life.  It  might  profitably  be  taught  at 
the  beginning  of  that  year  to  those  who  have  escaped 
its  acquisition  in  the  nursery.  When  the  makers  of 
children's  toy  blocks  and  picture  books  feel  the  in- 
fluence of  modern  pedagogy,  the  teaching  of  the  al- 
phabet will  assume  greater  importance  as  an  element 
of  the  curriculum. 

Advanced  Reading. — By  the  end  of  the  first  year  and 
a  half  or  two  years,  the  child  should  have  conquered 
the  mechanics  of  reading.  The  printed  word  should 
immediately  suggest  the  spoken  word,  and  in  the  case 
of  familiar  words,  the  visual  symbol  will  generally  sug- 
gest the  idea.  The  treatment  of  unfamiliar  words 
now  assumes  importance.  In  the  first  four  years  of 
school  life,  it  may  be  laid  down  as  an  important  prin- 
ciple that  new  words  should,  so  far  as  possible,,  be  in- 
troduced orally  and  become  part  of  the  pupils'  vo- 
cabulary before  they  are  read  or  written.  This  is  a 
logical  outcome  of  the  same  psychological  principles 
which  led  us  to  insist  on  the  association  between  the 
spoken  and  the  written  word  in  the  beginning  of  read- 
ing. A  large  part  of  the  elementary  teacher's  work 
should  consist  of  enlarging  the  pupils'  spoken  vo- 
cabulary. 

As  the  child  grows  older  and  develops  intellect- 
ually, he  will  frequently  meet  new  words  in  the  visual 
or  printed  form.  This  is  unavoidable.  Often  the 
teacher  will  find  it  wise  merely  to  give  a  synonymous 
expression  for  the  word  in  its  context,  relying  on  its 
recurrence  in  various  contexts  to  fix  the  concept. 
Some  words  may  remain  mere  sight  acquaintances 


44  INSTRUCTION  IN   THE   GRADES 

and  never  enter  the  realm  of  spoken  language.  For 
most  persons  this  result  is  inevitable.  The  colloquial 
vocabulary  differentiates  itself,  and  properly  so,  from 
the  literary.  The  validity  of  this  distinction  is  com- 
ing to  be  recognized  not  only  in  this  connection  but  in 
grammar  as  well. 

In  the  higher  elementary  grades,  pupils  should  be 
encouraged  to  use  dictionaries.  The  value  of  the 
dictionary  habit  will  be  discussed  more  fully  in  the 
next  chapter.  Here  it  may  suffice  to  direct  attention 
to  the  necessity  of  using  the  dictionary  to  ascertain  the 
meanings  of  unfamiliar  words.  The  direct  aim  is  to 
enable  the  pupil  to  grasp  the  meaning  of  the  word  in 
the  context  where  it  has  occurred,  not  necessarily  to 
enable  him  to  use  the  word  himself. 

Advanced  reading,  in  the  sense  of  thought  getting, 
should  include  much  silent  reading.  This  has  an 
economic  advantage  in  that  the  whole  class  can  do  it 
simultaneously.  In  addition,  it  prepares  the  child 
for  the  reading  of  adult  life  which  is  almost  always 
silent.  The  study  periods  of  school  life  are  all,  in  a 
way,  reading  exercises.  Whether  the  material  read 
is  poetry  or  geography,  it  should  be  followed  by 
searching  tests  and  interesting  commentary  by  the 
teacher.  These  tests  should  not  be  merely  of  the 
child's  recollection  and  comprehension  of  what  has 
been  read,  but  should  also  test  the  sprouting  of  his  at- 
tention. Ideas  related  to  and  springing  from  the  sub- 
ject matter  are  often  of  greater  value  than  the  mere 
retention  of  the  passage  itself. 

What  to  Read. — The  second  problem  of  reading  as 


BEADING  45 

thought  getting  concerns  the  material  or  what  should 
be  read.  As  was  pointed  out  in  the  beginning  of  this 
chapter,  the  wealth  of  books  of  all  descriptions  makes 
the  proper  selection  particularly  difficult.  From  the 
utilitarian  point  of  view,  the  book  to  be  read  would  be 
determined  by  one's  view  in  regard  to  the  practical 
aim  of  education.  Scientific  and  descriptive  works 
would  of  course  be  included.  We  may  omit  from  the 
present  discussion  those  books  on  history,  geography, 
etc.,  which  though,  in  a  strict  sense,  reading,  are 
generally  included  as  subjects  in  the  curriculum  to 
be  taught  in  a  specific  way.  The  material  of  read- 
ing, exclusive  of  these  curricular  subjects,  then  be- 
comes practically  synonymous  with  literature.  In 
fact,  it  would  clear  up  pedagogical  terminology  con- 
siderably, if  we  employed  the  word  literature  to  desig- 
nate this  whole  field  of  reading  in  the  elementary 
school. 

Courses  of  study  should  be  mapped  out,  as  they  are 
in  some  cities,  giving  specific  detailed  lists  of  books  to 
be  read.  There  should  also  be  a  clearly  marked  dif- 
ferentiation among  three  forms  of  literary  reading 
work— (a)  that  which  the  pupil  should  read  to  him- 
self silently  (b)  that  which  he  should  read  aloud  and 
(c)  that  which  the  teacher  should  read  to  the  class. 
The  treatment  of  (b)  will  be  deferred  to  the  chapter 
on  Oral  Expression.  The  determination  of  (a)  will 
depend  upon  the  age  and  intelligence  of  the  pupil. 
The  power  of  literary  appreciation  varies  tremen- 
dously among  different  pupils  of  the  same  grade. 
The  reading  class  should  be  divided  into  groups  on 


46  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

the  basis  of  this  variation,  and  different  books  sup- 
plied to  different  sections.  Written  answers  to  care™ 
fully  selected  questions  on  what  they  have  read  should 
frequently  follow  this  reading. 

There  are  many  literary  works  which  young  pupils 
are  capable  of  understanding  and  enjoying  if  they 
hear  them  well  read  aloud.  The  teacher  should  be 
supplied  with  a  list  of  such  books  and  there 
should  be  a  supplementary  optional  list  as  well.  Du- 
plication of  books  in  different  grades  must  be  avoided. 
Every  teacher  should  possess  the  ability  to  read  aloud 
in  a  clear  and  interesting  manner.  This  is  as  neces- 
sary a  qualification  for  the  grade  teacher  as  is  the 
ability  to  sing  for  the  kindergartner. 

Nursery  Rhymes  and  Jingles. — Although  not  usually 
accorded  the  dignity  of  literary  worth,  nursery 
rhymes  and  jingles  are  an  important  element  of  read- 
ing material.  They  form  a  legitimate  part  of  our 
social  inheritance.  Many  of  them  are  known  to  the 
child  before  entering  school.  They  thus  tend  to  viv- 
ify the  reading  lesson  and  make  it  real  and  valuable. 
They  should  as  a  rule  be  read  aloud  by  the  children 
just  as  most  poetry  should.  Rhyme  and  rhythm  are 
meant  for  the  ear  primarily,  not  for  the  eye.  There 
is  an  additional  value  in  the  fact  that  many  of  these 
jingles  give  a  good  vocal  training  as  well  as  an  ap- 
preciation of  metrical  construction.  If  any  other  ar- 
gument is  needed  for  the  inclusion  of  this  material, 
it  may  be  said  that  children  enjoy  them.  Other  things 
being  equal,  pleasure  giving  power  is  a  potent  quali- 


READING  47 

fication  for  anything.  Of  course,  in  the  case  of  the 
birch  rod,  other  things  are  not  equal. 

Fairy  Tales  and  Myths, — These  also  form  part  of  our 
social  inheritance.  It  is  perfectly  just  to  say  to  the 
adult  person  who  does  not  know  who  Bluebeard  or 
Sinbad  is  that  his  education  has  been  seriously  neg- 
lected. These  romantic  characters  live  in  the  fanci- 
ful world  of  make-believe,  but  in  a  deep  sense  they  are 
real  just  the  same.  Circe,  Cinderella,  and  Ali  Baba, 
none  of  whom  ever  lived,  are  more  distinct  person- 
alities to  my  imagination  than  are  Charlemagne  and 
"William  the  Conqueror,  both  of  whom  I  am  told 
really  existed.  The  joy  of  expectancy  on  my  little 
girl's  face  as  she  settles  down  on  my  knee  for  a 
story  of  fairies  or  elves  but  reflects  the  sympathetic 
joy  in  my  own  heart.  When  the  inevitable  "Once 
upon  a  time"  has  rolled  up  the  curtain,  happiness 
reigns  supreme.  What  though  the  story  be  not  true ! 
It  has  served  a  better  purpose  than  countless  investi- 
gations of  bespectacled  German  scientists.  It  has 
made  at  least  two  individuals  happy.  Even  hard,  dry 
facts  must  stand  this  test  before  their  worth  is  proved. 
But  after  all,  facts  are  only  facts.  They  are  but 
shadows  compared  with  the  reality  of  joys  and  hopes. 
Let  no  one  dare  carelessly  strike  down  that  which  has 
brought  happiness  to  countless  souls !  The  fairy  tale 
will  not  yield  to  the  narrow  dogmatism  of  science. 

Of  course  there  are  various  kinds  of  fairy  tales. 
The  only  sure  criterion  is  the  test  of  time.  Human 
nature  has  changed  but  little  in  the  historic  period 


48  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

of  the  world.  Those  tales  and  myths  which  have  sur- 
vived are  best  fitted  for  modern  reading.  The  Ara- 
bian Nights  and  Grimm 's  Fairy  Tales  represent  proba- 
bly the  two  best  collections.  Robert  Louis  Stevenson, 
Lewis  Carroll,  and  Rudyard  Kipling  have  furnished 
various  fanciful  tales  which  show  great  insight  into 
child  life  and  child  heart.  Whether  future  genera- 
tions will  verify  this  judgment,  time  alone  can  tell. 

The  moral  value  of  fairy  tales  must  not  be  over- 
looked, though  we  must  guard  against  such  an  over- 
indulgence as  to  make  the  child  dreamy  and  impatient 
of  life 's  slow  but  sure  realities.  On  the  aesthetic  side, 
fairy  tales  lay  the  basis  for  the  true  appreciation  of 
art,  which  in  its  best  forms  makes  its  appeal  to  the 
play  of  fancy  and  the  appreciation  of  make-believe. 
Morally,  the  fairy  tale  is  to  be  recommended  by  the 
glimpse  that  it  gives  of  a  just  distribution  of  rewards 
and  punishments.  Real  life  will  soon  enough  disabuse 
the  child's  mind  of  reliance  on  the  infallibility  of  the 
ethical  regime.  Many  modern  writers  of  stories  for 
children  fail  in  that  they  make  the  moral  lesson  too 
prominent.  Even  a  child  possesses  enough  human  in- 
dependence to  rebel  at  having  his  reasonings  and  de- 
ductions made  for  him.  Indulgence  in  this  kind  of 
moral  feeding  is  apt  to  lead  to  a  "hunger  strike." 

There  is,  in  conclusion,  a  considerable  conventional 
value  in  fairy  tale  lore.  Countless  allusions  to  the 
characters  occur  in  all  forms  of  literature.  Cinder- 
ella and  Aladdin  are  referred  to  as  often  perhaps  as 
are  Moses  and  Julius  Caesar.  Nor  are  the  allusions 
confined  to  the  characters  alone.  Even  details  of  the 


READING  49 

stories  are  supposed  to  be  common  property  of  the 
educated.  No  footnote  should  be  necessary  to  ex- 
plain Longfellow's  reference  to  Hawthorne's  un- 
finished writing : 

The  unfinished  window  in  Aladdin's  tower 
Unfinished  must  remain. 

Almost  all  that  has  been  said  about  the  fairy  tale 
applies  with  equal  force  to  the  myths,  heroic  tales, 
and  fables  which  have  come  down  to  us.  In  fact, 
many  of  them  are  in  substance  the  same.  Sinbad  the 
Sailor  is  but  an  Arabian  Odysseus,  and  the  Sleeping 
Beauty  of  Grimm's  is  another  Brunhilde.  The  fable 
has  perhaps  an  additional  moral  value  in  that  it  gives 
a  view  of  worldliness  which  may  serve  to  temper  the 
extreme  idealism  of  the  fairy  tale.  In  all  these  stories 
there  is,  besides,  a  convenient  and  often  striking  epit- 
ome of  types  of  character  or  behavior.  "Sour 
grapes"  is  a  most  useful  addition  to  our  vocabulary, 
as  is  "Dog  in  the  manger,"  etc.,  etc.  Sir  Galahad 
personifies  for  us  a  group  of  ethical  characteristics, 
while  Cinderella's  sisters  and  the  Barber's  brother, 
Alnaschar,  furnish  type  lessons,  as  it  were,  in  envy 
and  avarice  respectively. 

Poetry. — It  is  a  sad  but  true  commentary  on  our 
education  that  comparatively  few  adults  read  and  en- 
joy poetry.  It  would  not  be  fair  to  lay  the  entire 
blame  for  this  upon  the  school,  although  much  of  it 
belongs  there.  The  poetry  of  a  nation  represents,  as 
a  rule,  its  highest  literary  achievement.  The  inner 
life  of  a  people  is  crystalized  in  its  songs.  This  is  as 


50  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

true  today  of  poets  like  Swinburne  and  Noyes  as  it 
was  in  the  pre-writing  ages  of  the  epics  of  the  Greeks 
and  the  Finns. 

As  poetry  is  intended  primarily  for  the  ear,  there 
should  be  little  if  any  verse  read  silently  in  the  first 
five  years  of  school  life.  Considerable  poetry  should 
be  read  aloud  by  the  teacher,  particularly  dialect 
poetry  such  as  Riley  's,  which  pupils  enjoy  hearing  but 
not  reading  themselves.  Some  poems  should  be  read 
by  individual  pupils  in  the  classroom,  and  numerous 
short  poetical  selections  should  be  memorized.  The 
test  of  this  memorization  should  be  its  oral  recita- 
tion. Occasionally,  though  seldom,  the  selections 
should  be  written  by  the  pupils.  This  is  economy  of 
time,  if  mere  testing  is  the  object,  and  also  serves 
to  emphasize  the  verse  form. 

One  potent  cause  of  the  indifference  to  or  dislike 
for  poetry  on  the  part  of  many  persons  is  found  in  the 
use  of  poetical  selections  for  grammatical  analysis  and 
parsing.  This  will  be  discussed  at  length  in  the  chap- 
ter on  Grammar.  Here  it  may  suffice  to  call  atten- 
tion to  the  pernicious  practice  of  taking  a  long  poem, 
using  it  as  a  medical  student  uses  a  cadaver,  and 
then  expecting  the  pupils  to  have  an  appreciation  for 
its  beauty.  This  is  the  way  the  author,  as  a  school 
boy,  made  his  first  acquaintance  with  Scott's  Lady  of 
the  Lake.  To  this  day,  I  never  think  of  the  line 

"The  stag  at  eve  had  drunk  his  fill" 

without  a  painful  recollection  of  rewriting  it,  chang- 
ing the  voice  of  the  verb:  "His  fill  had  been  drunk 


BEADING  51 

by  the  stag  at  eve  " ! !  The  teacher,  probably  without 
any  definite  aim  or  perhaps  in  consideration  for  the 
continuity  of  the  story,  took  us  through  the  book,  page 
after  page,  as  though  Scott  had  planned  a  graded 
series  of  language  lessons  in  his  metrical  tale.  As  I 
think  of  the  process  now,  I  can  compare  it  to  nothing 
more  appropriate  than  running  a  lawn  mower  over  a 
bed  of  beautiful  flowers. 

A  teacher  with  a  true  appreciation  of  poetry  will 
have  but  little  trouble  inspiring  her  pupils.  Select 
your  material  carefully  and  decide  in  advance  what 
you  are  going  to  read  to  them  and  what  they  shall 
read  to  you.  If  happiness  is  an  end  of  education,  no 
greater  legacy  can  be  given  by  the  school  than  a  love 
for  good  poetry.  The  teacher  should  never  forget 
that  poetry  was  and  is  written  to  be  read  not  dissected. 
Of  course,  at  times,  obscurities  of  diction  and  con- 
struction must  be  cleared  up  by  the  teacher,  and  even 
metrical  forms  may  need  explanation,  but  these  mat- 
ters are  all  secondary  and  must  never  destroy  the  true 
aim  of  the  work — literary  appreciation. 

Prose  Fiction. — The  novel  and  the  short  story  repre- 
sent the  most  popular  forms  of  prose  fiction  today. 
They  are  both  fairly  recent  developments  in  the  his- 
tory of  literature.  This  makes  selections  in  this  field 
difficult.  Survival  through  the  ages  as  in  the  case 
of  the  Fairy  Tale  cannot  be  appealed  to  here  as  a 
criterion.  Literary  criticism,  however,  may  compen- 
sate for  the  lack  of  historic  perspective.  The  consen- 
sus of  critics,  for  example,  has  fixed  the  novels  of 
Fielding,  Sterne,  Scott,  George  Eliot,  Dickens, 


52  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE   GRADES 

Thackeray  as  reliable  literary  standards.  Many  a 
child  is  old  enough  to  have  a  novel  read  to  him  before 
he  is  able  to  appreciate  it  himself.  The  author  read 
Mark  Twain's  Prince  and  Pauper  to  a  class  of  fifth 
year  pupils  with  much  apparent  pleasure  to  the  chil- 
dren. Here  and  there  a  verbal  commentary,  explana- 
tion, or  paraphrase  was  found  necessary.  As  a  re- 
sult of  the  reading,  considerable  interest  was  aroused 
in  the  writings  of  Mark  Twain  and  the  library  was  be- 
sieged for  Huckleberry  Finn,  Tom  Sawyer  and  the 
rest.  Moreover,  the  important  point  to  remember  is 
that  not  only  were  the  pupils  afforded  innocent  en- 
joyment, but  a  taste  for  good  literature  was  developed. 
These  children  were  being  prepared  for  the  duties  of 
parenthood.  Their  children  would  probably  not  need 
the  school  inspiration  for  good  reading,  but  would  get 
it  at  home.  It  would  be  time  well  spent  if  at  least 
one  hour  a  week  were  devoted  to  the  reading  of  good 
representative  novels  by  the  teachers  to  their  classes. 
Many  teachers  have  found  the  last  hour  of  the  school 
week  to  be  a  good  time  for  such  work. 

In  regard  to  very  recent  fiction,  the  safest  plan  is 
to  await  a  reliable  literary  consensus.  The  six  best 
sellers  may  safely  wait  until  Silas  Marner,  Ivanhoe, 
David  Copperfield,  and  Vanity  Fair  have  been  en- 
joyed. Without  presuming  to  judge  for  posterity,  it 
would  seem  as  though  the  tremendous  output  of  novels 
in  our  day,  while  bound  to  produce  something  of  last- 
ing value,  will  be  in  the  main  ephemeral.  A  desire 
to  pander  to  a  fleeting  and  ofttimes  vicious  public 
taste  and  to  a  shallow  philosophy  of  life  make  much 


BEADING  53 

of  this  stuff  unavailable  for  reading  material  either  in 
the  home  or  the  school. 

The  short  story  has  had  such  a  remarkable  develop- 
ment in  the  last  hundred  years  that  it  may  now  claim 
a  separate  place  as  a  species  of  literary  production. 
Monthly  and  weekly  periodicals  of  all  sorts  furnish 
ever  so  many  excellent  short  stories,  many  of  which 
can  be  found  suitable  for  school  use.  No  child  should 
go  out  from  the  elementary  school  without  a  fair  ac- 
quaintance with  the  best  American  magazines  and 
some  knowledge  of  their  characteristics.  Of  course 
there  are  many  short-story  writers  who  may  be  said 
to  have  become  classic.  Poe,  Hawthorne,  Kipling,  and 
Stevenson  have  permanent  niches  in  the  literary  Hall 
of  Fame.  Nor  should  this  work  be  limited  to  English 
writers.  Good  translations  from  the  French,  German, 
Italian,  etc.,  should  also  be  read.  It  is  certainly  a  nar- 
row provincialism  which  would  permit  a  boy  to  go  out 
into  the  world  in  entire  ignorance  of  Balzac,  de  Mau- 
passant, Goethe,  Cervantes,  Ibsen,  Boccaccio,  and  hosts 
of  other  non-English  writers  in  the  various  fields  of 
literature.  It  is  a  sad  fallacy  to  demand  the  read- 
ing of  these  foreign  writers  in  the  original.  Such  an 
impossible  standard  of  attainment  means  practically 
locking  the  doors  to  much  of  the  world's  best  litera- 
ture. We  do  not  require  that  the  Bible  be  read  in 
Hebrew,  then  why  must  ablatives  and  indirect  dis- 
course bar  the  way  to  Ovid  and  Virgil? 

The  Newspaper. — The  modern  newspaper  is  the  most 
widely  read  of  all  publications.  It  contains  every 
variety  of  literary  output,  even  to  the  serial  novel.  It 


54  INSTRUCTION   IN  THE   GRADES 

has  become  as  necessary  to  home  life  as  the  tooth- 
brush and  player  piano.  All  will  recall  Whittier's 
lines  of  joy  after  a  week's  deprivation: 

At  last  the  floundering  carrier  bore 
The  village  paper  to  our  door. 

Welcome  to  us  its  week-old  news, 

Its  corner  for  the  rustic  Muse, 

Its  monthly  gauge  of  snow  and  rain. 

Its  record,  mingling  in  a  breath 

The  wedding  bell   and  dirge   of  death; 

Jest,   anecdote,   and  love-lorn  tale, 

The  latest  culprit  sent  to  jail; 

Its   hue   and   cry   of   stolen   and   lost, 

Its   vendue   sales    and    goods   at   cost, 

And  traffic  calling  loud  for  gain. 

We   felt   the   stir   of  hall   and   street, 

The  pulse  of  life  that   round  us  beat; 

The  chill  embargo  of  the  snow 

Was  melted  in  the  genial  glow; 

Wide   swung  again  our  ice-locked   door, 

And  all  the  world  was  ours  once  more! 

From  the  standpoint  of  the  present  chapter,  we 
must  inquire  what  use,  if  any,  can  be  made  of  the 
newspaper  as  reading  material  in  the  school  room.  In 
subsequent  chapters  we  shall  consider  other  educa- 
tional aspects  of  the  newspaper,  e.  g.,  in  connection 
with  written  language,  history,  civics,  etc.  It  would 
seem  to  be  a  good  plan  for  the  pupils  to  have  some 
acquaintance  with  all  the  newspapers  of  their  city, 
just  as  we  pointed  out  in  connection  with  the  maga- 


BEADING  55 

zines.  They  should  be  led  to  have  a  natural  abhor- 
rence of  the  tawdry  or  sensational  and  a  proper  re- 
spect for  sane  and  solid  journalism.  This  would 
scarcely  be  possible  below  the  higher  grammar  grades. 
In  these  grades,  however,  and  even  lower,  instruc- 
tive exercises  in  reading  newspapers  could  be  had,  and 
some  time  each  day  might  profitably  be  spent  in  read- 
ing current  events.  Work  of  this  kind  can  be  made 
as  entertaining  as  instructive. 

Other  Material. — The  author  is  not  attempting  in 
this  chapter  an  exhaustive  description  or  catalogue  of 
all  forms  of  reading  material.  Tales  of  adventure, 
travel,  history,  biography,  and  the  drama  should,  how- 
ever, be  mentioned.  Biography  in  particular  has 
great  inspirational  value.  In  spite  of  much  shallow 
criticism,  I  venture  to  recommend  Franklin's  Auto- 
biography for  all  grammar  school  pupils.  Among 
tales  of  adventure,  Gulliver's  Travels,  Robinson  Cru- 
soe, and  Treasure  Island  simply  must  be  read.  So 
must  the  Homeric  Epics  and  Don  Quixote.  Although 
drama  is  usually  postponed  until  the  latter  part  of 
secondary  education,  I  think  some  dramatic  works 
could  profitably  be  read  to  the  children  of  the  elemen- 
tary school.  Shakespeare  in  particular  will  be  found 
to  make  a  wonderful  appeal  to  7th  and  8th  year  pu- 
pils. Dramatic  literature  has  enjoyed  a  renascence  in 
the  last  fifty  years  and  it  behooves  the  live  teacher  to 
keep  abreast  of  the  spirit  of  the  times.  Maeterlinck 's 
Blue  Bird  would  be  enjoyed  by  pupils  as  early  as  the 
third  school  year.  Moreover,  it  should  be  remembered 
that  the  dramatic  instinct  is  strong  in  children. 


56  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE   GRADES 

Any  account  of  literary  material  would  be  notor- 
iously incomplete  if  it  failed  to  mention  that  book  of 
books — the  Bible.  Considered  merely  as  a  human 
production,  we  have  in  the  Bible  a  veritable  store- 
house of  all  descriptions  of  literary  art.  The  nar- 
rowness and  jealousies  of  religious  sects  have  retarded 
the  educational  use  of  this  material,  although  it  is 
now  gaining  foothold  in  various  college  courses.  Let 
us  hope  that  the  time  will  come  when  this  rich  ma- 
terial can  be  read  and  reverently  read  as  literature. 
The  eternal  truths  of  religion  would  be  in  no  sense 
endangered  by  this  outcome. 

The  Course  in  Literature. — The  foregoing  discus- 
sion of  the  material  of  reading  has  plainly  indicated 
that  the  term  Literature  for  this  part  of  the  work 
would  be  appropriate  and  unambiguous.  This  is 
what  it  really  is,  and  the  inclusion  of  it  under  reading 
is  misleading.  In  many  places,  however,  the  designa- 
tion literature  is  limited  to  the  high  school.  An  addi- 
tional advantage  of  using  the  word  would  be  to 
emphasize  the  fact  that  what  children  read  is  of  the 
utmost  importance,  a  fact  now  frequently  overlooked. 
This  is  largely  due,  as  will  be  shown  in  the  next  chap- 
ter, to  the  confusion  between  reading  and  oral  ex- 
pression. 

Some  simple  work  in  the  history  of  literature  might 
be  advantageously  taken  up  in  the  elementary  school, 
but  it  should  always  be  subordinated  to  the  essential 
aim,  viz.,  literary  enjoyment  and  appreciation.  There 
is  no  doubt  that  it  adds  considerably  to  the  interest 
of  one's  reading  of,  say,  The  Living  Temple  to  know 


READING  57 

that  Holmes  had  studied  and  practiced  medicine. 
Again  interesting  events  of  George  Eliot's  life  vivify 
the  story  of  The  Mill  on  the  Floss.  The  historic  back- 
ground of  literature  is  also  frequently  illuminating 
if  presented  in  a  proper  and  unpedantic  way.  Reade  's 
It  is  Never  too  Late  to  Mend  or  Hood's  Song  of  the 
Shirt  are  made  more  interesting  and  profitable  by 
some  such  explanations.  Some  biographical  data  are 
contained  in  many  of  the  excellent  collections  of  prose 
and  poetry  known  as  Reading  Books.  These  data  are 
too  frequently,  however,  mere  dates  and  uninteresting, 
unrelated  facts  which  throw  no  light  on  the  literature 
as  such. 


CHAPTER  V 
ORAL  EXPRESSION 

What  it  Means. — The  term  Oral  Expression  is  open 
to  the  same  criticism  which  applies  to  so  many  peda- 
gogical designations.  It  is  both  vague  as  the  title  of  a 
definite  curricular  subject  and  includes  ever  so  many 
phases  of  the  teaching  process.  Every  word  that  the 
pupil  utters  from  an  informal  " Thank  you,  Ma'am" 
to  a  prolonged  deliverance  on  "Arbitration"  is  in- 
cluded under  Oral  Expression,  just  as  Reading  runs 
the  gamut  from  the  study  of  a  geography  lesson  to  de- 
tailed work  involving  literary  appreciation.  In  the 
main,  and  so  far  as  possible,  I  shall  restrict  the  desig- 
nation to  every  form  of  utterance  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil  where  he  consciously  considers  how  he  is  ex- 
pressing himself  as  well  as  what  he  is  saying. 

A  Distinction. — The  line  of  demarcation  between 
Oral  Expression  and  ordinary  class  room  work  or  reci- 
tation is  exceedingly  fine  and  difficult  of  determina- 
tion. Yet  for  practical  purposes  the  line  should  fre- 
quently be  drawn.  We  sometimes  hear  it  said  that 
every  recitation  should  be  at  the  same  time  a  lesson 
in  language.  This  is  one  of  those  extreme  statements 
which  are  the  bane  of  theoretic  pedagogy.  In  one 
sense  it  is  true,  but  the  determination  of  the  question 

58 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  59 

is  in  the  last  analysis  a  matter  of  emphasis.  If  the 
purpose  of  a  teacher's  question  is  merely  to  test  geo- 
graphic knowledge,  the  answer  to  "What  is  the 
capital  of  England  ? ' '  may  very  well  be  simply :  ' '  Lon- 
don." This  is  all  that  is  necessary  from  the  stand- 
point of  geographic  emphasis.  If  the  purpose  of  the 
question  is  to  give  the  pupil  practice  at  the  same  time 
in  complete  sentence  construction,  the  teacher  should 
demand  something  like :  * '  The  capital  of  England  is 
London."  This  is  a  better  answer  from  the  stand- 
point of  language  emphasis.  At  times,  perhaps  fre- 
quently, the  two  ends  may  be  secured.  It  is,  however, 
a  mistake  to  distract  the  pupils'  attention  from  the 
main  issue.  Moreover,  colloquial  or  conversational 
language  does 'not  habitually  use  the  complete  state- 
ment, and  a  universal  insistence  on  the  latter  is  not 
only  distracting,  but  may  easily  give  rise  to  a  stilted 
and  unnatural  form  of  speech.  ' '  On  the  shelf  "  is  an 
adequate  and  thoroughly  idiomatic  response  to  the 
question:  "Where  is  the  book?"  Of  course,  incor- 
rectness of  speech  must  not  be  tolerated.  "Because  I 
seen  them"  is  an  absolutely  unallowable  answer  to 
' '  How  do  you  know  there  are  snow  crystals  ? ' '  Even 
here,  however,  the  correction  should  be  made  with  the 
least  possible  interruption  of  the  main  issue.  It 
would  probably  be  an  inappropriate  time  for  a  dis- 
sertation on  the  distinction  between  the  participle  and 
preterit.  The  prevalent  errors  of  speech  in  the  class 
room  form  valuable  material  for  subsequent  corrective 
work  in  pronunciation,  grammar,  and  rhetoric. 

The  Value  of  Oral  Expression, — As  a  specific  subject 


60  INSTRUCTION  IN   THE  GRADES 

of  the  curriculum,  too  much  stress  can  scarcely  be  laid 
upon  oral  expression.  We  all  talk  ever  so  much  more 
than  we  write.  Self  confidence  and  readiness  in 
speech  are  a  valuable  asset  for  any  man  or  woman. 
The  ability  to  read  aloud  clearly  and  entertainingly  is 
a  possession  whose  happiness  value  can  scarcely  be 
over-estimated.  Many  of  the  asperities  and  disson- 
ances of  life  would  be  eliminated  if  we  could  all  say 
what  we  mean  unambiguously,  forcefully,  and  pleas- 
antly. In  the  opinion  of  the  author,  one  solution  of 
the  omnipresent  servant  problem  would  be  found  in  a 
careful  course  in  Oral  Expression  for  mistresses.  Am- 
biguous orders,  interpreted  by  an  uneducated  judg- 
ment, with  the  resultant  scolding  are  responsible  for 
many  a  " week's  notice."  Socially,  the  good  conver- 
sationalist and  raconteur  has  tremendous  advantage 
over  the  diffident  or  awkward  talker.  Besides  all  this, 
formal  training  in  addressing  groups  of  persons  is  of 
great  value  in  connection  with  our  present  social  ar- 
rangements. Most  educated  men  and  women  belong 
to  clubs  or  societies — political,  religious,  athletic,  so- 
cial— membership  in  which  brings  with  it  the  neces- 
sity or  desirability  of  standing  on  one's  feet  and  hav- 
ing one's  say.  Whether  it  be  a  felicitous  speech  of 
compliment  at  a  wedding  feast  or  a  political  harangue 
on  the  floor  of  Congress,  how  one  talks  is  frequently  as 
important  as  what  one  says.  The  public  schools  have 
been  derelict  in  this  matter  of  oral  expression,  but 
there  is  now  evident  a  growing  appreciation  of  its 
value.  It  has  already  won  a  place  as  a  separate  sub- 
ject in  the  curricula  of  many  school  systems. 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  61 

Oral  Expression  and  Primary  Reading. — In  the  last 
chapter,  the  emphasis  in  the  teaching  of  reading  was 
laid  on  the  necessity  of  getting  the  thought.  It  was 
insisted  that  a  distinction  should  be  made  between 
thought  getting  and  thought  expressing.  The  three- 
fold character  of  Reading  as  the  term  is  often  vaguely 
used  may  profitably  be  repeated:  (a)  getting  the  au- 
thor's thought  (accomplished  usually  by  silent  read- 
ing and  study),  (b)  what  thoughts  we  are  getting 
(the  material  of  reading — better  called  Literature) 
and  (c)  expressing  the  author's  thought  (reading 
aloud,  one  phase  of  oral  expression). 

In  the  very  beginning  of  his  work,  the  child  must 
read  aloud,  so  that  here  reading  and  oral  expression 
merge  into  one.  The  purpose,  however,  is  test.  It 
is  necessitated  by  the  mastery  of  the  mechanics  of 
the  reading  operation.  Moreover,  since,  as  we  saw, 
the  association  between  the  visual  symbol  and  the 
spoken  word  is  the  important  consideration,  the  lat- 
ter must  be  largely  in  evidence  in  the  early  part  of 
the  work.  This  necessity  of  oral  reading  in  the  very 
beginning  of  the  course  has  been  responsible  for  one 
of  the  silliest  and  most  wasteful  processes  of  the 
class  room]  It  has  tended  to  the  continuation  of  the 
practice  even  after  the  mechanics  of  the  reading 
operation  was  thoroughly  mastered,  and  has  resulted 
in  a  fatal  vagueness  of  aim.  The  so-called  reading  les- 
son in  the  higher  grades  of  many  schools  is  nothing 
more  than  a  farce.  There  is  a  tacit  recognition  of 
this  fact  in  the  arrangement  of  the  program  bringing 
the  reading  lesson  at  the  end  of  the  afternoon,  when 


62  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

teacher  and  pupils  are  half  asleep  anyway.  All  the 
children,  bright  and  dull,  have  copies  of  the  same 
book,  one  reads  aloud  and  the  others  are  supposed  to 
follow.  Some  commentary  and  explanations  of  words 
by  the  teacher  now  and  then  rouse  the  listless  listen- 
ers (the  reader's  attention  is  called  to  the  fact  that 
" listless "  may  be  taken  as  a  pun)  to  some  attitude 
akin  to  attention.  This  description  may  seem  ex- 
aggerated and  the  writer  hopes  that  it  is.  It  shall 
stay  as  written,  however,  because  painful  reminis- 
cences of  many  dull  school  hours  of  my  own  experience 
are  still  lively  in  my  recollection  and  I  know  well  that 
despite  advances  in  the  science  of  pedagogy,  there  is 
no  stronger  hold  on  teachers  than  tradition.  Thou- 
sands of  teachers  today  are  conducting  their  classes 
just  as  they  themselves  were  taught  as  children. 

Reading  Aloud  as  a  Phase  of  Oral  Expression. — Con- 
sidered strictly  as  a  part  of  Oral  Expression,  reading 
aloud  attains  considerable  importance.  Oral  reading 
must  always  presuppose  that  the  thoughts  to  be  read 
are  already  thoroughly  understood  by  the  pupil.  Si- 
lent reading,  study,  and  needed  explanations  must 
precede  the  attempt  to  read  aloud.  The  other  mem- 
bers of  the  class  form  the  audience,  and  the  point  of 
view  must  be  that  the  pupil  doing  the  reading  is 
obligated  to  make  them  understand  and  appreciate 
what  he  reads.  They  should  not  look  at  their  books 
while  the  reading  is  in  progress,  but  their  books 
should  be  either  closed  or  face  downward  on  their 
desks.  They  should  look  at  the  reader,  who  should,  as 
a  rule,  stand  at  the  front  of  the  room  facing  his  au- 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  63 

dience.  His  position  should  be  natural  and  easy,  the 
weight  of  his  body  preferably  on  one  foot  at  a  time. 
He  should  stand  erect  and  in  a  hygienic  attitude ;  his 
left  hand  holding  the  book  and  his  right  hanging  at 
his  side — not  in  his  pocket.  These  points  should  be 
insisted  upon  in  the  beginning  of  the  work,  so  that 
they  may  become  practically  second  nature.  Affec- 
tation should  not  be  tolerated,  but  we  must  remember 
that  for  some  people  even  a  bath  is  affectation.  So 
rather  a  forced  or  stilted  attitude  than  one  that  is 
stoop-shouldered  and  slouchy. 

Imagination  in  Reading. — It  is  often  said  that  read- 
ing trains  the  imagination.  How  we  shall  interpret 
this  statement  can  be  guessed  from  our  treatment  of 
Formal  Discipline  in  the  first  chapter  of  this  book. 
Beading  does  train  the  imagination,  particularly  read- 
ing aloud,  if  we  understand  by  this  that  it  affords 
brilliant  opportunities  for  the  creation  of  an  ideal  of 
imagery.  The  necessary  relation  between  imagina- 
tion and  comprehension  is  an  integral  part  of  the 
process  of  teaching  reading.  In  the  preliminary  work 
or  stage  of  preparation,  the  teacher  should  insist  on 
the  pupils  forming  an  image,  a  picture.  She  may  as- 
sist frequently  by  vivid  description  or  objectively  by 
showing  the  actual  things  with  which  the  passage  deals 
or  by  blackboard  illustration.  Some  may  object  that 
this  is  perceptive  rather  than  imaginative  work,  but 
we  must  not  forget  that  imagery  is  intensified  by  such 
objective  helps  if  they  are  not  carried  to  an  extreme. 
Searching  questions  must  follow  this  preparatory 
work,  so  as  to  be  sure  that  the  entire  class  or  section 


64  INSTRUCTION   IN  THE  GRADES 

actually  has  the  required  images.  This  should  con- 
stitute the  principal  step  of  preparation  for  oral  read- 
ing. 

Conveying  the  Imagery  to  the  Audience. — Practi- 
cally the  only  excuse  for  oral  reading  when  its  use  as 
a  test  of  thought  getting  is  no  longer  necessary,  is  to 
express  the  author 's  words  so  that  others  may  get  the 
thought.  Other  elements  of  oral  reading  will  be  dis- 
cussed later.  Here  we  will  restrict  ourselves  to  the 
one  consideration:  How  must  the  pupil  read  aloud 
so  that  the  audience  can  readily  and  with  a  minimum 
of  effort  get  the  ideas  of  the  author?  First,  we  will 
repeat,  the  reader  must  clearly  image  the  ideas  him- 
self. Then  he  must  ask  "How  shall  I  give  these  to 
my  listeners?"  He  should  be  made  to  comprehend 
the  fundamental  principle  of  all  reading  or,  in  fact, 
every  expressive  art,  that  some  elements  are  important, 
salient,  while  others  are  secondary  or  subordinate. 
Many  words  of  the  passage  form  a  mere  setting  for  the 
prominent  ideas.  Indeed  it  is  possible  to  omit  many 
words  from  an  ordinary  paragraph  and  still  leave  the 
meaning  fairly  intact.  The  decision  as  to  which  are 
and  which  are  not  the  prominent  ideas  forms  an  inter- 
esting and  valuable  part  of  the  reading  lesson.  An 
illustration  will  make  this  clearer :  Take,  for  example, 
the  first  lines  of  Longfellow's  Skeleton  in  Armor: 

Speak,  speak,  thou  fearful  guest, 
Who  with  thy  hollow  breast 
Still  in  rude  armor  drest 

Comest  to  daunt  me! 
Wrapped  not  in  Kastern  balms, 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  65 

But  with  thy  fleshless  palms 
Stretched  as  if  asking  alms, 
Why  dost  thou  haunt  me? 

Then  from  those  cavernous  eyes 
Pale  flashes  seemed  to  rise — etc. 

The  teacher's  preparation  for  the  reading  of  this 
poem  would  include  certainly  an  account  of  the  events 
—the  finding  of  the  armored  skeleton — which  the  poet 
himself  explains  in  a  note.  Some  interesting  recital 
of  the  exploits  of  the  Norsemen  and  of  their  manners 
and  customs  would  also  be  illuminating  and  there 
would  be  afforded  a  splendid  opportunity  for  correla- 
tion with  the  history  of  American  discoveries.  The 
reference  to  "Eastern  balms"  would  probably  have 
to  be  explained  by  the  teacher  as  would  some  other 
words  and  phrases  of  the  poem. 

The  question  now  arises  in  considering  the  oral  read- 
ing of  the  lines  above  quoted :  What  is  the  important 
picture  which  the  audience  must  have  placed  before 
their  mental  vision?  Evidently  the  rather  odd  and 
decidedly  grewsome  image  of  an  unearthed  armored 
skeleton.  With  this  aim  clearly  in  mind,  what  are  the 
most  important  elements  ?  Obviously  ( '  hollow  breast, ' ' 
"fleshless  palms,"  "cavernous  eyes."  These  expres- 
sions, more  than  any  other  parts  of  the  quotation,  are 
salient  factors  in  the  mental  image  of  the  skeleton. 
* '  Rude  armor  drest ' '  is  also  important,  but  * '  wrapped 
not  in  Eastern  balms"  is  decidedly  secondary  and,  if 
given  undue  prominence,  may  even  become  distracting. 
The  vitally  important  emotional  side  of  the  imagery 


66  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE  GRADES 

will  be  considered  immediately  after  we  have  outlined 
the  best  way  of  giving  the  prominent  factors  promi- 
nence in  our  reading. 

Emphasis, — The  important  words  or  phrases,  once 
selected,  should  be  so  uttered  that  they  will  naturally 
make  a  vivid  impression  on  the  minds  of  the  audience. 
This  is  generally  expressed  by  saying  that  they  must 
be  emphasized.  There  are  innumerable  ways  of  em- 
phasizing. Anything  that  attracts  attention  to  a  word 
constitutes  emphasis.  If  the  reader  had  a  gong  con- 
cealed on  his  person  and  would  ring  it  at  every  im- 
portant word,  it  would  tend  to  produce  emphasis 
albeit  with  a  measure  of  distraction.  Some  readers 
emphasize  important  points  by  facial  contortions  or 
grimaces.  Roosevelt  uses  this  method  and,  it  must  be 
admitted,  rather  effectively.  It  would  scarcely  do  for 
the  school  room  however.  The  most  usual  way  to  em- 
phasize a  word  is  to  utter  it  more  loudly  than  its 
fellows.  Such  added  force  will  naturally  attract  the 
listeners'  attention.  But  so  would  any  pronounced 
difference  in  utterance.  In  fact,  saying  one  word  very 
softly,  almost  whispering,  may  produce  the  same  effect. 
Similarly,  gestures  may  give  emphasis  as  well  as  in- 
terpretation to  a  passage.  Non-vocal  methods  are 
perhaps  more  appropriate  to  speaking  than  to  read- 
ing and  they  will  be  considered  later  in  that  connec- 
tion. 

What  is  probably  the  most  effective  way  of  empha- 
sizing remains  to  be  considered,  viz.,  the  pause.  It 
is  the  author  '&  opinion,  based  on  considerable  observa- 
tion, that  the  intelligent  use  of  the  pause  is  the  prin- 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  67 

cipal  distinguishing  mark  of  the  good  reader.  The 
ordinary  untrained  grammar  school  pupil  pauses  only 
when  he  is  out  of  breath.  Psychologically  the  pause 
gives  to  the  word  which  follows  it  all  the  vividness 
resulting  from  a  state  of  expectant  attention.  The 
longer  the  pause — within  reason,  of  course — the 
stronger  the  emphasis.  This  emphasis  may  be  further 
intensified  by  a  change  of  tone — loudness,  softness, 
pitch,  timbre — on  the  important  word.  The  pause 
alone,  is,  however,  usually  ample.  Care  must  be  taken 
that  the  pupil  does  not  drop  his  voice  on  the  word 
preceding  the  pause,  as  an  unnatural,  staccato  effect 
is  thereby  produced,  which  will  be  apt  to  defeat  the 
end  in  view.  The  pause,  as  a  means  of  emphasis,  has 
the  additional  advantage  that  it  may  serve  to  bring 
out  not  only  single  words  but  entire  clauses  and  sen- 
tences. It  should  be  insisted  on  from  the  beginning 
of  expressive  oral  reading,  so  that  its  constant  con- 
scious use  may  become  second  nature  to  the  pupil. 
Let  any  one  take  the  poetical  lines  cited  above  and 
make  pauses  before  the  phrases  selected  as  important, 
and  he  cannot  fail  to  notice  the  heightening  of  the  ef- 
fect and  the  clarifying  of  the  picture.  I  shall  never 
forget  the  rendition  of  Antony's  famous  funeral  ad- 
dress by  the  veteran  actor  John  Lane.  I,  a  youth  of 
seventeen,  was  a  supernumerary  in  the  Koman  mob 
whose  feelings  were  being  wrought  upon.  Particu- 
larly impressive  were  the  lines: 

The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them, 
The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones. 


68  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

The  pauses  before  the  words  "evil"  and  "good" 
respectively  were  fully  six  seconds  in  duration.  In 
both  cases  ' '  the ' '  was  pronounced  with  the  long  e. 

A  pause  after  an  emphatic  word  or  phrase  is  also 
helpful,  as  it  tends  to  set  it  off  clearly  and  distinctly. 
In  fact,  the  pause  is  Janus  headed,  looking  both  ways. 
Not  only  does  it  focalize  what  follows  it,  but  gives 
time  for  retrospective  comprehension  of  what  has  pre- 
ceded it.  The  constant  admonition  "too  fast,  too 
fast!"  will  be  remedied  more  effectually  by  the  con- 
scious use  of  the  pause  than  by  any  other  way  I  know 
of.  Let  the  pupil  ever  have  before  his  mind  the 
thought  that  he  is  painting  mental  pictures  for  his 
audience — an  audience  with  their  eyes  on  him,  not  on 
the  text — and  he  will  appreciate  the  necessity  of 
slow,  deliberate  reading.  More  than  this,  as  he  learns 
to  put  himself  in  the  place  of  the  audience,  and  recol- 
lects some  of  his  own  dreary,  bored  experiences  as 
listener,  he  will  recognize  the  ethical  obligation  im- 
posed upon  him  to  distinguish  between  the  vital  and 
the  unessential  by  intelligent  emphasis. 

Expression. — Emphasis  is  a  large  factor  in  what  we 
call  expressive  reading,  but  it  is  not  the  only  factor. 
Just  as  the  musician  interpreting  a  composition  must 
regard  other  marks  than  piano,  forte,  and  the  pause, 
so  the  oral  reader's  imagination  supplies  him  with 
maBstoso's  dolce's,  cantabile's,  etc.  The  mental  pic- 
ture contains  more  than  mere  perceptive  elements. 
It  has  an  emotional  side  as  well.  Frequently,  a  vivid 
imagination  will  unconsciously  give  to  the  reader's 
tone  the  requisite  emotional  suggestiveness.  Whether 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  69 

justly  or  not,  teachers  usually  attribute  lack  of  ex- 
pression to  a  lack  of  imagery.  Generally  speaking, 
this  is  true.  According  to  the  testimony  of  some 
actors,  however,  vivid  imagination  and  strong  feeling 
do  not  always  conduce  to  deeper  emotional  effect  upon 
an  audience.  And  the  reverse  proposition  has  also 
been  maintained.  It  is  not,  of  course,  the  purpose 
of  the  school  to  develop  a  race  of  actors  or  dramatic 
elocutionists.  Still  the  teacher  of  oral  expression 
can  learn  much  from  that  great  educational  institu- 
tion— the  stage. 

Referring  again  to  the  poetical  quotation  above,  the 
pupils  should  realize  that  the  mental  picture  of  the 
skeleton  is  not  an  ordinary  sight,  nor  the  state  of 
mind  which  would  lead  one  to  ask  it  to  " Speak! 
Speak ! "  an  every  day  experience.  Lead  them  to  see 
that  the  predominant  emotion  is  horror.  Get  them 
to  infuse  some  horror  into  their  reading  and  if  they 
succeed  but  poorly,  do  it  for  them.  So  with  the 
various  emotions  which  are  of  frequent  occurrence  in 
reading,  such  as  love,  surprise,  hate,  fear,  envy,  etc., 
etc.  Expressive  reading,  therefore,  contains  two 
factors — first,  the  clear  mental  image,  the  intellectual 
factor,  and  second,  conveying  the  appropriate  feeling, 
the  emotional  factor. 

Enunciation. — I  have  discussed  emphasis  and  ex- 
pression before  clearness  of  utterance  because  they 
have  the  priority  in  importance  even  if  not  in  time. 
Make  your  audience  understand,  force  their  attention 
are  the  watch  words  of  all  oral  expression.  This  may 
seem  to  conflict  with  the  natural  conversational  tone 


70  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

set  up  as  an  aim  in  many  courses  in  reading.  To  a 
certain  extent  it  does.  So  long  as  thought  getting 
by  the  reader  was  regarded  as  the  main  purpose  of 
oral  reading,  the  conversational  manner  was  suffi- 
cient. But  when  the  aim  is  shifted  from  thought  get- 
ting to  thought  giving  and  the  audience  is  enlarged 
from  one  to  fifty  or  a  hundred,  the  easy,  conversa'- 
tional  tone  is  not  sufficiently  convincing  or  interpreta- 
tive. The  apparently  easy,  natural  conversational 
tone  is  one  of  the  last  things  learned  in  oral  expres- 
sion, and  is  indicative  of  consummate  art.  Ars  est 
artem  celare.  This  applies  with  especial  force  to  oral 
reading.  The  effect  must  be  produced,  but  the  effort 
should  be  inconspicuous  or  absent.  Effective  sugges- 
tive reading  is  a  talent  possessed  by  few. 

These  considerations  bring  us  to  the  important  topic 
of  clearness  or  enunciation.  From  the  beginning, 
careless  or  slipshod  enunciation  must  be  guarded 
against.  In  reading  to  or  addressing  an  audience  of 
forty  or  more,  there  is  demanded  a  clearness  of  ut- 
terance which  would  sound  stilted  or  affected  in  ordi- 
nary conversation.  The  individual  members  of  the 
audience  are  at  various  angles  and  distances  from  the 
reader,  and  there  is  not  the  same  rapt  attention  char- 
acteristic of  a  tete  a  tete.  Again,  the  larger  the  au- 
dience, the  greater  the  difficulty  of  appealing  to  the 
individual  interests.  So,  make  sure  that  the  vocaliza- 
tion is  sufficiently  loud  and  accurate.  It  is  not  a  bad 
plan  for  the  teacher  to  sit  in  the  back  of  the  room,  so 
that  the  pupil  may  acquire  the  habit  of  throwing  his 
voice  to  the  most  distant  point.  This  also  prevents 


ORAL   EXPRESSION  71 

the  nervous  shifting  of  attitude  caused  by  the  teacher 
at  her  desk  in  the  front  of  the  room.  No  member  of 
the  audience,  and  the  teacher  is  not  the  least  impor- 
tant member,  should  be  back  of  the  speaker  or  reader. 

Specific  exercises  may  be  as  helpful  to  clear  enuncia- 
tion as  are  movement  drills  to  penmanship.  Class 
practice  in  carelessly  uttered  words  like  ghosts,  kept, 
library,  etc.,  serve  to  focalize  attention  on  the 
necessity  of  giving  the  various  vowels  and  consonants 
their  full  value.  Some  of  these  exercises  may  occa- 
sionally take  the  form  of  concert  recitation.  This 
should  be  regarded  as  an  interesting  variant  to  be 
used  seldom  and  cautiously.  Individual  recitations 
are  safer  and  more  effective.  Five  minutes  a  day 
spent  in  such  enunciation  drills  will  be  found  to 
produce  excellent  results. 

A  word  of  caution  is  perhaps  necessary  in  regard  to 
this  insistence  on  clear  enunciation.  There  arises  a 
real  danger  of  affectation  and  stiltedness  which  may 
produce  a  result  too  far  removed  from  the  utterances 
of  ordinary  conversation.  In  the  author's  experience, 
however,  he  does  not  recall  many  days  or  nights  of 
worry  on  account  of  his  pupils  enunciating  too  clearly. 
Oral  expression  to  an  audience  is  not  ordinary  con- 
versation, and  a  grammar  school  pupil  can  readily  be 
made  to  grasp  the  distinction.  The  trouble  with  much 
of  the  insufferable  reading  and  declamation  which 
holds  back  the  hands  of  the  clock  at  an  otherwise  en- 
joyable social  function,  is  due  to  the  failure  to  recog- 
nize the  distinction  between  stressed  and  unstressed 
words.  If  due  consideration  is  given  to  the  princi- 


72  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

pies  of  emphasis  discussed  above,  the  unimportant 
parts  of  a  passage  will  naturally  lack  the  incisive- 
ness  of  enunciation  which  belongs  to  the  emphatic 
expressions.  Ordinary  elocution  drill  often  gives  too 
much  attention  to  the  letter  and  too  little  to  the  spirit 
of  the  law. 

Pronunciation. — Enunciation  and  pronunciation  are 
closely  related.  Carelessness  in  the  former  often  leads 
to  error  in  the  latter.  "Kep"  for  "kept"  and  "li- 
bry"  for  " library, "  "vilet"  for  " violet"  are  a  few 
illustrations.  Enunciation  is  a  matter  of  care,  pro- 
nunciation a  matter  of  knowledge.  This  distinction 
leads  us  to  the  very  difficult  consideration  of  what  we 
mean  by  correct  pronunciation. 

As  Sweet  points  out  in  his  Primer  of  Phonetics,  it 
seems  foolish  to  argue  as  to  how  we  should  pronounce 
before  we  have  scientifically  ascertained  how  we  do 
pronounce.  Prom  a  philosophical  standpoint,  this 
statement  is  undoubtedly  true.  The  practical  teacher, 
however,  cannot  await  the  resolution  of  the  abstruse 
problems  of  phonetics  any  more  than  the  ordinary 
mortal  can  stop  breathing  until  physiologists  shall 
determine  the  exact  nature  of  the  mechanism  of 
neuro-muscular  control.  Sweet's  statement  has,  how- 
ever, an  important  bearing  on  spoken  language,  es- 
pecially as  it  directs  attention  to  the  fact  that  the 
same  language  is  pronounced  in  different  ways  in 
different  localities  and  even  in  the  same  locality,  and 
even  by  the  same  individual  at  different  times.  There 
were  many  local  differences  of  pronunciation  long  be- 
fore written  language  was  invented  or  in  general  use. 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  73 

Many  of  these  differences  have  been  handed  down  by 
tradition  and  thus  perpetuated.  Moreover,  new  dif- 
ferences are  constantly  arising,  some  explainable  by 
phonetic  laws,  some  undoubtedly  due  to  changes  of 
fashion,  and  some  absolutely  inexplicable.  However 
caused,  these  differences  do  exist  and  the  teacher  of 
oral  expression  must  recognize  them.  She  should, 
though  this  is  no  easy  matter,  be  able  to  distinguish 
between  mere  transient  fads  and  permanent  changes. 
Pope's  lines  are  applicable: 

Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  is  tried 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside. 

In  fact,  the  teacher  of  oral  expression  will  be  forced 
to  assume  a  conservative  attitude  toward  pronuncia- 
tion. The  main  difficulty  is  not  with  words  like  per- 
emptory or  sacrilegious,  words  rarely  used  by  elemen- 
tary school  pupils,  but  with  that  host  of  familiar 
words  like  on,  past,  taunt  which  are  of  every  day  oc- 
currence. Here  she  must,  it  seems  to  the  author, 
remember  the  adage  that  "When  in  Eome,  do  as  the 
Romans  do."  She  must  studiously  observe  and  fa- 
miliarize herself  with  those  forms  of  pronunciation 
used  by  the  intelligent,  cultured  members  of  that  com- 
munity where  she  resides.  It  would  be  the  silliest 
waste  of  time  conceivable  in  Philadelphia,  e.  g.,  to  in- 
sist on  the  pupils  using  the  broad  or  Italian  a  in  words 
like  class,  past,  etc.  A  negative  attitude  toward  vul- 
gar or  low  pronunciations  is  perhaps  the  most  ef- 
fectual course.  She  should,  however,  by  constant  ex- 
ample, emphasize  what  she  considers  the  proper 


74  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

pronunciation.  The  long  u  of  words  like  duty,  the 
short  o  of  on,  song,  etc.,  and  the  short  a  of  man,  stamp, 
etcn  should  be  taught  positively  and  insisted  upon  at 
all  times.1 

The  habit  of  referring  to  the  dictionary  for  the 
pronunciation  of  doubtful  or  unfamiliar  words  will 
be  found  most  beneficial.  A  dictionary  should  be  at 
each  pupil's  desk  during  the  oral  reading  lesson.  In 
this  way,  a  pronunciation  conscience  can  be  created. 
Since  the  purpose  of  all  oral  expression  is  to  render 
the  understanding  of  what  is  said  as  easy  as  possible, 
it  is  obvious  that  any  pronunciations  which  distract 
the  listener's  attention  from  the  thought  are  to  be 
studiously  avoided.  This  does  not  mean,  however, 
the  sacrifice  of  accuracy,  but  rather  the  use  of  com- 
mon, usual  pronunciations  when  several  different 
forms  are  authorized.  The  intelligent  use  of  a  dic- 
tionary, presupposes,  of  course,  a  working  knowledge 
of  the  various  diacritical  marks.  This  knowledge  may 
commence  in  the  fifth  school  year.  No  pupil  should 
quit  the  elementary  school  without  being  able  to  as- 
certain the  pronunciation  of  a  word  through  the  aid 
of  some  standard  dictionary.  The  author  has  met 
many  high  school  graduates  who  are  deficient  or  al- 
together lacking  in  this  ability.  In  English,  accentua- 
tion presents  considerable  difficulty.  Foreigners  find 
this  aspect  of  our  language  particularly  troublesome. 
Pupils  should  be  drilled  in  pronouncing  words  ac- 
cording to  their  accentuation.  Secondary,  as  well  as 

i  The  author,   in  citing  these  illustrations,  being  a   Phila- 
delphian,  is  doing  as  the  Romans  do. 


ORAL  EXPRESSION  75 

primary  accent,  must  be  taught.  It  will  be  found  an 
interesting  exercise  to  have  pupils  pronounce  words 
accenting  each  syllable  in  turn.  E.  g.,  after  the  pu- 
pils have  determined  the  primary  accent  of  the  word 
"revolution,"  let  them  pronounce  it  accenting  the 
first  syllable,  then  the  second,  and  the  last.  The  odd- 
ness  of  the  resulting  words  will  intensify  the  correct 
pronunciation  and  emphasize  the  importance  of  cor- 
rect accentuation. 

Foreign  Words — German,  French,  Latin  particu- 
larly— sometimes  occur  in  English  works.  The 
teacher  should  prepare  for  these  in  advance  and  give 
her  pupils  as  nearly  an  accurate  pronunciation  as 
she  can.  The  conversational  value  of  ability  to  pro- 
nounce these  languages  is  greater  than  it  first  ap- 
pears. I  have  known  of  cases  where  the  social  pres- 
tige of  an  individual  was  almost  destroyed  by 
inaccurate  pronunciation  of  words  as  frequently  used 
as  ennui,  tete  a  tete,  and  auf  wiedersehen. 

Declamation. — I  employ  this  old  fashioned  word  as 
a  fitting  designation  for  the  recitation  of  memorized 
selections  of  prose  or  poetry.  All  that  has  been  said 
about  oral  reading  applies  with  equal  force  to  declama- 
tion. As  a  rule,  an  audience  expects  more  from  a  de- 
claimer  as  the  mere  fact  of  memorization  implies  some 
degree  of  studious  consideration.  Again,  the  de- 
claimer  is  able  to  face  his  audience  all  the  time.  The 
absence  of  the  distracting  printed  page  should  make  it 
easier  to  hold  their  attention. 

The  teacher's  manner  is  very  important  in  this 
work,  as  it  is  in  all  forms  of  artistic  expression. 


76  INSTRUCTION  IN   THE  GRADES 

Kidicule  and  sarcasm — dangerous  weapons  at  all 
times — are  absolutely  out  of  place  here.  A  certain 
degree  of  timidity,  made  increasingly  evident  by  the 
boy's  swaggering  bravado,  is  natural  to  adolescence. 
Riveting  the  attention  of  the  class  upon  the  specific 
aims  of  expression  and  enunciation  produces  a  whole- 
some atmosphere  for  the  work.  As  a  rule,  the  pas- 
sage selected  for  declamation  should  be  short  and 
worthy  of  memorization.  Good  opportunities  are  of- 
fered here  for  correlation  with  history  and  other 
school  subjects,  as  well  as  with  literature. 

The  problem  of  bodily  attitude  in  all  forms  of  oral 
expression  except  reading  is  further  complicated  by 
an  additional  hand.  Self-consciousness  and  timidity 
exhibit  their  most  persistent  symptoms  in  the  lack  of 
control  of  the  extremities.  Certain  books  on  elocu- 
tion prescribe  exact  regulations  for  the  position  of  the 
entire  body.  It  would  be  helpful  for  the  pupil  to 
know  some  of  the  best  of  these  regulations.  Insist- 
ence upon  them,  however,  may  easily  prove  fatal  to 
ease  and  naturalness.  Healthful  position  of  the  body 
should  be  demanded  at  all  times.  Grace  is  an  after 
consideration  but  an  important  one.  Praise  the  pupil 
for  the  good  points  of  his  bodily  position,  thus  giving 
them  emphasis  for  the  entire  class.  Positively  pro- 
hibit slouchiness,  hands  in  pockets,  projecting  abdo- 
men, straddled  feet,  etc.  Make  the  pupils  understand 
that  an  important  factor  in  securing  attention  con- 
sists in  the  speaker's  attitude.  If  he  himself  is  not 
interested  in  what  he  is  saying,  how  can  he  reasonably 
expect  to  arouse  interest  in  his  audience?  Attacking 


ORAL   EXPRESSION  77 

the  problem  in  this  way,  the  teacher  can  work  up  to 
good  bodily  attitudes  without  the  otherwise  grave 
danger  of  crushing  out  spontaneity.  The  pupil  stand- 
ing before  his  classmates  in  declamation  is  also  apt  to 
regard  himself  as  an  occasional  cynosure  for  this 
limited  but  critical  public.  Tactfully  managed,  this 
opportunity  may  be  turned  to  good  account  in  creating 
habits  of  cleanliness  and  neatness  of  dress.  When  the 
pupil  has  finished  his  recitation,  but  not  before,  the 
teacher  should  lead  the  class  in  a  good  natured  but 
strictly  critical  discussion  of  its  good  points  and  de- 
fects. The  declaimer  himself  should  be  given  the  first 
opportunity  in  the  discussion  to  correct  his  faults. 

Gesture. — As  was  pointed  out  above,  in  discussing 
emphasis,  movements  of  the  hands  or  in  fact  of  any 
part  of  the  body,  or  of  the  entire  body,  are  justified 
when  they  are  necessary  to  explain  or  emphasize  some 
word  or  expression.  Pointing  up  wrhile  saying  the 
word  " above"  accentuates  the  aboveness.  Raising 
the  eyebrows  for  the  word  ' '  supercilious ' '  and  curling 
the  lip  for  "scornful,"  illustrate  what  I  mean.  Here 
again  the  reader  or  reciter  whose  imagery  is  clear  and 
vivid  is  apt  to  make  some  partially  appropriate  ges- 
ture. Here,  as  with  expressive  emotional  reading, 
there  is  much  to  be  taught,  or  better,  inspiringly  shown 
by  the  teacher.  It  is  safe  to  lay  down  as  a  rule  for 
most  beginners:  The  fewer  arm  movements,  the  bet- 
ter. Stilted,  affected  results  must  be  guarded  against. 
Just  as  a  musician  injects  his  personality  into  his 
rendition  of  a  symphony,  so  should  the  reader  or  de- 
claimer in  his  interpretation  of  a  literary  passage. 


78  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

We  should  expect  more  facial  mobility  and  gesticula- 
tion from  an  Italian  or  Frenchman  than  from  an 
Englishman  or  American.  Their  absence  in  the  for- 
mer would  be  as  conspicuous  an  affectation  as  would 
be  their  excessive  use  by  the  latter.  A  rather  nega- 
tive attitude  toward  gesture  in  the  form  of  large  bodily 
movements  is  perhaps  safest  in  the  elementary  school 
at  least.  Encourage  such  gestures  as  seem  to  spring 
from  the  personality  of  the  reciter  but  do  not  insist 
on  them  in  any  case. 

Public  Speaking. — This  is  a  rather  high  sounding 
title  for  the  kind  of  work  which  can  be  attempted  in 
the  elementary  school.  It  will  seem  a  more  reason- 
able designation  if  I  define  "public"  to  mean  any 
group  of  listeners  from  ten  interested  kindegarten  tots 
to  an  assembly  of  a  thousand  grammar  school  pupils. 
Public  speaking  becomes  a  form  of  declamation  when 
the  speaker  memorizes  his  story,  talk,  or  speech  before 
delivering  it.  Some  work  of  this  character  may  profit- 
ably be  attempted  in  the  grammar  school,  most  use- 
fully perhaps  in  connection  with  written  language, 
which  will  be  considered  in  a  later  chapter.  Here  I 
restrict  public  speaking,  for  convenience  of  treatment, 
to  the  recital  of  topics — literary  or  scientific — of  which 
the  pupil  has  sufficient  knowledge,  but  whose  verbal 
formulation  he  first  attempts  in  oral  form.  Grammar 
and  rhetoric  of  a  simple  character  find  a  rich  concrete 
application  here  in  addition  to  the  purely  oral  aspect 
of  the  exercise.  In  oral  reading  and  declamation, 
grammar  and  rhetoric  are  presupposed  possessions  of 
the  author — not  so  with  public  speaking.  The  first 


ORAL   EXPRESSION  79 

grade  pupil's  "It  was  him"  in  the  course  of  his  re- 
cital of  some  narrative  or  personal  experience  must 
be  rigidly  changed  to  "It  was  he."  Similarly,  with 
more  mature  pupils,  the  rhetorical  principles  of  em- 
phasis, unity,  and  coherence  must  be  strictly  insisted 
upon.  In  fact,  concrete  training  in  grammar  and 
rhetoric  forms  an  exceedingly  important  value  of  pub- 
lic speaking.  Class  criticism  and  discussion  of  such 
errors  as  they  occur  is  far  better  training  than  the 
usual  method  of  individual  corrections  of  written 
themes.  And  this  is  the  appropriate  place  for  such 
corrections,  and  for  insistence  on  the  complete  state- 
ment. Here  it  is  not  interruptive,  as  it  might  be  in 
the  arithmetic  or  geography  lesson,  but  is  in  fact 
the  very  point  of  the  exercise. 

The  fundamental  principles  of  description,  narra- 
tion, and  exposition  are  also  best  taught  in  connection 
with  these  oral  exercises.  It  is  helpful  sometimes  to 
furnish  the  class  with  a  bare  outline  of  some  narra- 
tive, then  after  giving  them  some  time  for  thoughtful 
preparation,  call  upon  as  many  individual  pupils  as 
possible  to  recite.  With  older  pupils,  topics  related 
to  the  curricular  subjects  may  be  assigned  for  home 
or  library  preparation.  Sketches  of  the  important 
facts  may  be  written  and  the  oral  exercise  conducted 
during  a  regular  school  period.  Valuable  methods  of 
using  periodicals,  newspapers,  and  reference  works  can 
be  developed,  which  will  be  interesting  as  well  as 
educative  in  a  broad  sense.  A  good  school  library  is 
invaluable  in  connection  with  this  work. 

Vocabulary  Building. — Word  study  has  as  impor- 


80  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE  GRADES 

tant  a  bearing  upon  oral  as  upon  written  language. 
The  course  in  public  speaking  will  tend  to  enlarge  the 
pupil's  vocabulary.  The  important  relation  between 
language  and  conception  has  been  briefly  hinted  at  in 
the  chapter  on  Psychology.  Every  new  word  learned 
means  so  much  additional  mental  organization.  The 
child  who  can  say  " charity"  instead  of  some  circum- 
locution like  " helping  the  poor  and  needy"  can  not 
only  express  himself  more  felicitously,  but  has  also 
acquired  the  power  of  thinking  more  economically. 
When  I  substituted  the  word  " chalk"  for  my  two 
year  old  daughter's  "the  white  stuff  that  you  write 
with, ' '  I  gave  her  a  new  mental  tool.  In  a  sense,  I  ac- 
complished for  her  mental  organization  what  Eli 
Whitney  did  for  the  production  of  cotton.  New 
words  really  comprehended  and  made  our  own  are  like 
so  much  labor  saving  machinery.  At  the  close  of  a 
pupil's  recitation  the  teacher  will  frequently  be  able 
to  suggest  some  shorter  more  felicitous  way  of  express- 
ing a  certain  thought.  She  may  supply  a  word  of 
which  the  pupil  already  has  recognition  knowledge,  or 
she  may  deem  it  advisable  to  make  an  absolutely  new 
addition  to  the  vocabulary  of  the  class. 

The  author  has  found  it  an  interesting  and  help- 
ful plan  in  his  oral  expression  work  to  classify  words 
into  three  groups — old  friends,  acquaintances,  and 
strangers.  By  old  friends  he  indicates  that  large 
group  of  everyday  words  like  "house,"  "go," 
' '  water, ' '  etc.,  of  which  all  the  pupils  have  both  recog- 
nition and  working  knowledge.  By  acquaintances  he 
means  those  words  of  which  the  pupils  have  only 


ORAL   EXPRESSION  81 

recognition  knowledge,  i.  e.,  words  which  they  easily 
understand  when  they  hear  or  read  them,  but  which 
they  seldom  or  never  use.  Pupils  will  often  find  it 
extremely  difficult  to  draw  the  line  between  old  friends 
and  acquaintances,  but  the  attempt  to  do  so  is  excel- 
lent language  training.  It  makes  them  conscious  of 
the  limitations  of  their  own  working  vocabularies,  and 
leads  them  to  a  better  and  more  exact  use  of  words. 
It  will  be  found  quite  interesting  to  have  a  class  take 
a  page  or  two  of  some  literary  work,  and  arrange  the 
words  in  three  columns,  viz.,  old  friends,  acquain- 
tances, and  doubtful. 

The  strangers  will  be  found  more  difficult  to  handle. 
In  language,  as  in  life,  it  is  easier  to  convert  acquaint- 
ances into  friends  than  to  perform  the  same  office 
with  strangers.  As  was  stated  in  a  previous  chapter, 
in  the  early  grades,  most  if  not  all  new  words  should 
be  used  at  first  orally.  Subsequently  writing  the  new 
words  helps  to  focalize  the  attention.  Using  the  word 
in  varying  contexts  is  the  method  psychology  plainly 
indicates  for  the  formation  of  the  concept.  Many  of 
the  technical  terms  of  geography,  arithmetic,  gram- 
mar, etc.,  are  used  so  frequently  that  they  soon  gain 
familiarity.  This  is  not  the  case,  however,  with  nu- 
merous words  of  literature.  Here  it  inevitably  occurs 
that  frequently  the  first  contact  with  the  new  word 
will  be  visual,  not  auditory.  Some  explanation  will 
be  found  necessary  by  the  teacher,  and  she  cannot  al- 
ways depend  upon  frequency  or  repetition  to  make 
the  word  an  acquaintance,  far  less  an  old  friend. 
Mental  organization  of  the  new  word  and  vividness 


82  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

of  impression  are  therefore  absolutely  essential.  An 
exceedingly  valuable  form  of  such  mental  organiza- 
tion is  often  provided  by  an  etymological  considera- 
tion of  the  word.  This  will  also  be  of  assistance  in 
its  spelling  as  we  shall  see  in  the  next  chapter. 

The  author  has  found  it  helpful  in  his  work  with 
high  school  classes  to  require  the  pupils  to  record  in 
a  special  notebook,  kept  solely  for  the  purpose,  all 
new  words  which  occurred  in  their  reading  or  study, 
together  with  their  meanings  and  the  date  on  which 
they  were  met.  Periodical  examination  of  these  note 
books  and  quizzes  on  the  meanings  of  the  words  con- 
stituted the  very  necessary  follow-up  work.  The  re- 
quirement of  the  date  was  a  whim  of  the  author,  who 
thought  that  it  would  add  interest  to  the  work,  mak- 
ing the  books,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  mental  diary  or 
journal  of  the  pupil's  intellectual  development,  a 
journal  whose  perusal  might  be  interesting  in  future 
years.  Such  a  plan  might  be  used  with  good  results 
in  the  higher  grammar  grades. 


CHAPTER  VI 
SPELLING 

Its  Value. — So  far  as  conventional  value  is  con- 
cerned, a  knowledge  of  spelling  is  not  so  important 
as  the  ability  to  pronounce  correctly  and  speak  gram- 
matically. This  statement  may  seem  strange  to  the 
old  time  school  masters,  but  a  little  reflection  will  show 
it  to  be  true.  In  the  first  place  we  speak  so  much 
more  than  we  write,  that  the  quantitative  argument 
becomes  overwhelming.  Again,  we  must  recognize  the 
fact  that  there  are  constitutionally  poor  spellers, 
whose  culture  and  general  intelligence  are  of  the  high- 
est grade.  They  either  hire  clerks  or  amanuenses  to 
write  at  their  dictation  or  else  have  somebody,  part 
of  whose  stock  in  trade  is  ability  to  spell,  rewrite 
their  manuscripts.  In  speaking,  however,  whether 
formally  or  informally,  errors  in  grammar  and  pro- 
nunciation are  interpreted,  and  often  justly,  as  in- 
dications of  lack  of  education  and  culture.  On  the 
other  hand  there  are  not  the  same  local  variations  in 
written  as  in  spoken  language.  The  differences  be- 
tween England  and  America  are  so  slight  as  to  be  neg- 
ligible. In  consequence  of  this  universal  standard, 
there  is  no  loophole  of  excuse  for  bad  spelling.  We 
cannot  extenuate  by  saying  ' '  Oh  well,^  he 's  from  Vir- 

83 


84  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE  GRADES 

ginia  or  from  Maine."  And  there  are  many  who 
must  know  how  to  spell  in  connection  with  their  fu- 
ture vocations.  For  these,  spelling  has  an  especial 
utilitarian  value,  while  for  all  of  us  its  value  is  largely 
conventional. 

Difficulties  of  English  Spelling. — "Were  English  a 
phonetic  language,  as  German  practically  is,  the  teach- 
ing of  spelling  would  present  no  special  difficulty. 
There  would  be  a  limited  number  of  letters  or  letter 
combinations  always  representing  the  same  sound,  and 
mistakes  would  occur  only  as  the  result  of  absolute 
carelessness.  The  amount  of  time  necessarily  spent 
in  the  teaching  of  English  spelling  handicaps  us 
greatly  in  educational  competition  with  nations  blessed 
with  simpler  or  more  nearly  phonetic  languages. 
The  time  we  must  spend  on  spelling  can  be  devoted  in 
German  schools,  for  instance,  to  various  really  useful 
acquisitions.  I  believe  that  Germany's  preeminence 
in  education  is  largely  due  to  the  phonetic  character 
of  the  German  language. 

To  any  casual  student  of  history,  the  reason  for  the 
horrible  condition  of  modern  English  spelling  is  plain. 
Starting  as  a  comparatively  pure  dialect  of  West  Teu- 
tonic— Anglo  Saxon — it  was  beaten  down,  and  then 
stirred  into  a  hybrid  broth  by  the  invasion  of  the 
Norman  French.  There  were,  besides,  other  less  im- 
portant influences.  This  is  not  the  place  to  dwell  op- 
timistically on  the  grand  results  of  this  mixture  in 
creating  the  richest  and  most  flexible  of  modern  lan- 
guages. So  far  as  spelling  is  concerned,  the  stand- 
point is  necessarily  pessimistic.  Modern  English 


SPELLING  85 

spelling  may  be  defined  as  the  attempt  to  indicate 
by  the  French  values  of  Chaucerian  letters  the  cur- 
rent pronunciations  of  that  distant  age.  While  pro- 
nunciations have  changed  tremendously — in  Chau- 
cer's time,  there  was  not  a  single  silent  letter  in 
the  word  knight — spelling  has  remained  practically 
the  same.  Various  attempts  at  reformed  spelling  have 
been  made  and  the  author  wishes  them  God  speed. 
They  must  of  course  be  conservative  and  gradual,  so 
that  English  spelling  will  doubtless  be  a  difficult,  time- 
consuming  branch  of  the  curriculum  for  years  to  come. 

A  Distinction. — We  may,  for  convenience  of  treat- 
ment, divide  English  words  or  syllables  into  two 
classes,  which  for  want  of  better  names  I  shall  call 
rational  and  arbitrary.  I  consider  those  words  or 
parts  of  words  rational  whose  spelling  can  be  judged 
from  the  usual  phonetic  value  of  the  letter  combina- 
tions. For  example,  the  word  man  is  a  rational  or 
phonetic  English  word;  so  is  the  syllable  ful  in  its 
various  combinations,  so  the  word  humdrum,  etc.,  etc. 
There  is  probably  not  a  word  but  has  some  rational 
element,  even  phlegm  has  its  I  and  e  and  m.  Word 
spelling  will  also  be  considered  rational  if  the  pupil 
can  deduce  it  from  its  derivation. 

The  use  of  the  word  "arbitrary"  for  the  second 
group  of  words  is  somewhat  misleading,  but  I  can 
think  of  no  better  designation.  For  instance,  al- 
though a  word  like  hymn  belongs  to  the  arbitrary 
group,  there  is  of  course  a  definite  reason  for  its  ex- 
act spelling.  If  the  historic  reason  for  the  word  is 
too  far  to  seek,  or  too  obscure,  or  unknown  to  the 


86  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

teacher — few  elementary  teachers  are  or  can  be  ex- 
pected to  be  philologists — the  word  must  be  taught  as 
a  word,  much  as  a  Chinese  symbol  stands  for  its  idea. 
In  the  sense  that  every  existent  thing  has  a  definite 
though  not  always  known  cause  for  its  existence,  noth- 
ing is  arbitrary.  Whether  to  regard  certain  words  as 
rational  (in  this  broader  historic  sense)  or  arbitrary 
is  often  a  nice  point  for  the  teacher  to  determine. 

Rational  Spelling. — As  was  indicated  in  the  pre- 
ceding paragraph,  some  words  are  entirely  rational, 
while  practically  all  words  have  rational  elements. 
The  only  difficulty  here  is  that  there  are  so  many  ar- 
bitrary elements  of  words,  that  the  child  must  remem- 
ber which  are  rational  as  well  as  which  are  arbitrary. 
Him,  hymn,  limb,  are  a  group  of  words  illustrating  a 
fairly  prevalent  condition.  The  arbitrarization — if  I 
may  coin  the  word — of  him  into  himb  would  be  as 
likely  as  the  rationalization  of  limb  into  Urn. 

The  early  teaching  of  spelling  in  the  lowest  grades 
should  be  largely  rational  and  inductive.  Grouping 
of  words  containing  the  same  phonetic  elements  assists 
the  formation  of  permanent  associations.  For  ex- 
ample, light,  might,  fright,  tight,  etc.,  frequently  seen 
together  naturally  lead  to  the  generalization  of  the 
sound  value  of  ight,  so  that  when  this  sound  is  heard 
the  letter  forms  i-g-h-t  will  be  suggested  to  the  child's 
mind.  The  same  sound  might  also  suggest  the  letters 
i-t-e.  Two  or  even  more  than  two  associations  or 
generalizations  do  not  destroy  the  intrinsic  value  of 
the  rational  method  of  procedure.  Left  to  himself, 
the  child  will  unconsciously  generalize,  and  it  is  cer- 


SPELLING  87 

tainly  best  that  the  teacher  so  arrange  her  instruc- 
tion that  those  generalizations  be  made  which  will 
prove  most  helpful.  The  fact  that  a  child  may  occa- 
sionally spell  kite,  kight,  is  no  argument  against  the 
efficacy  of  this  method  of  teaching.  While  English 
spelling  remains  as  it  is  today,  any  method  which  will 
prevent  all  mistakes  will  undoubtedly  herald  the  ap- 
proach of  the  millennium. 

Just  as  the  test  of  thought  getting  necessitated  oral 
reading  in  the  beginning  of  the  work,  so  the  well  es- 
tablished read- write  method  implies  that  the  child  shall 
be  able  to  write  and  hence  to  spell  what  he  reads. 
Although  this  is  true  of  the  first  part  of  the  work,  it 
should  not  be  carried  too  far.  There  are  many  words 
which  the  young  child  should  be  able  to  read  without 
necessarily  being  required  to  remember  their  spelling. 
For  example,  a  first  or  second  grade  child  in  Phila- 
delphia should  be  able  to  recognize  such  words  as 
Schuylkill,  Delaware,  Independence  Hall.  They  are 
probably  too  difficult  to  require  that  their  spelling 
should  be  remembered  by  the  very  young  pupils. 
When  they  occur  in  their  little  written  exercises,  it 
would  be  a  good  plan  for  the  teacher  to  write  these 
words  plainly  upon  the  blackboard,  so  that  the  pupils 
would  simply  have  to  copy  them.  The  spelling  of 
many  absurdly  difficult  words  is  required  of  little 
tots  to  the  just  irritation  of  pupils  and  parents  alike. 
Later,  of  course,  the  spelling  of  many  of  these  local 
geographical  and  historical  words  must  be  known  by 
the  pupils,  but  then  they  will  be  older  and  better  able 
to  learn  them. 


88  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

Word  Derivation. — In  the  previous  chapter,  I  have 
indicated  the  importance  of  etymology  as  an  associa- 
tive peg  for  word  meanings.  It  also  is  of  great  value 
in  connection  with  spelling.  A  word  is  rationalized 
by  any  bit  of  knowledge  which  enables  the  pupil  to 
reason  out  its  spelling.  Not  only  is  mental  organiza- 
tion secured  but  an  otherwise  dull  subject  can  in  this 
way  be  made  delightfully  interesting. 

An  acquaintance  with  the  principal  prefixes  and  suf- 
fixes will  be  found  of  great  assistance.  When,  for 
instance,  the  prefix  dis  is  shown  as  an  integral  part 
of  disease,  disappear,  disappoint,  etc.,  an  interesting 
association  is  formed  and  a  useful  generalization  is 
supplied.  There  is  far  less  danger  of  a  child  thus 
taught  misspelling  disappear  as  dissapear  than  there 
would  be  had  he  no  insight  into  the  derivation  of  the 
word.  So  business  seen  in  its  suffix  aspect  as  merely 
ness  added  to  busy  and  grouped  with  happy,  happi- 
ness, clumsy,  clumsiness,  etc.,  is  far  less  apt  to  be  for- 
gotten. Historic  associations  are  also  valuable.  The 
child  who  knows  that  the  Philippines  were  named  after 
King  Philip  will  probably  be  relieved  from  his  doubts 
as  to  whether  the  word  has  two  I's  or  two  p's.  The 
history  of  the  absurdly  wrong  spelling  " rhyme/' 
which  nevertheless  we  use,  will  serve  to  impress  the 
three  words  rhyme,  rime,  and  rhythm.  Such  methods 
are,  of  course,  only  helps,  not  panaceas.  There  is  no 
panacea  for  the  ills  attendant  on  our  present  sys- 
tem of  English  spelling.  I  make  this  remark  because 
of  the  foolish  propensity  of  some  educational  critics 


SPELLING  89 

to  condemn  a  method  absolutely  because  it  will  not 
cure  everything  and  apply  everywhere. 

This  method  of  enlivening  and  rationalizing  the 
spelling  lesson  is  so  valuable,  that  the  author  ventures 
to  assert  that  every  teacher  should  become  a  philolo- 
gist at  least  to  the  extent  of  thinking  about  and  look- 
ing up  a  word  derivation  whenever  possible. 

Rules  of  Spelling.— Out  of  numerous  attempts  to 
bring  order  and  system  into  our  inchoate  spelling, 
there  have  resulted  some  helpful  generalizations. 
These  are  often  referred  to  as  rules  of  spelling.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  these  rules  have  by  no  means 
the  validity  or  universality  of  application  of  the  laws 
of  physical  science.  It  is,  however,  silly  to  argue  that 
a  rule  is  worthless  simply  because  it  has  exceptions. 
Even  were  there  as  many  exceptions  as  applications, 
the  generalization  would  still  be  of  use  as  grouping 
together  for  the  mind  a  number  of  words  of  similar 
literal  construction.  Indeed  the  fact  that  a  word  is 
regarded  as  an  exception  to  a  rule  intensifies  its  ac- 
quisition, giving  an  additional  associative  bond 
through  the  force  of  contrast.  The  rules  of  spelling 
should  be  taught  not  earlier  perhaps  than  the  sixth 
school  year,  by  which  time  the  pupil  has  a  broad  and 
solid  basis  for  his  inductions.  And  these  rules  should 
be,  so  far  as  possible,  inductively  attained  through  the 
pupils'  self -activity,  discreetly  guided  by  the  teacher. 

The  generalizations  which  the  author  has  found 
most  helpful  are. as  follows:  changing  the  y  into  ie  in 
the  formation  of  plurals,  as  lady,  ladies;  changing 


90  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

final  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  into  i  on  the  addition 
of  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  consonant,  as,  happy,  hap- 
piness; dropping  final  e  on  the  addition  of  an  initially 
vowel  suffix,  as,  dance,  dancing;  retaining  the  e  when 
the  suffix  begins  with  a,  o,  or  u,  as,  changeable;  using 
the  diphthong  ie,  pronounced  ee,  after  all  letters  but 
c  when  it  becomes  ei,  as  friend,  ceiling;  using  the  diph- 
thong ei  when  pronounced  a,  as  weight,  reign;  doub- 
ling the  final  single  consonant  of  a  monosyllabic  or 
ultimately  accented  word  upon  taking  a  suffix  begin- 
ning with  a  vowel,  as,  hat,  hatter.  The  disfavor  with 
which  these  rules  are  regarded  in  many  quarters  is 
probably  due  to  the  fact  that  they  are  badly  taught, 
often  too  hurriedly,  the  pupils  not  being  allowed  to 
make  their  own  generalizations.  Properly  taught, 
they  are  to  be  heartily  recommended  as  an  efficacious 
means  of  rationalizing  English  spelling.  Many  an  in- 
trinsically educative  subject  has  been  dropped  from  the 
curriculum  because  of  faulty  methods  of  instruction. 
Etymology  has  met  this  fate  in  many  school  systems. 

After  the  generalizations  have  been  properly  made 
and  thoroughly  understood,  a  simple  working  of  the 
rules  could  profitably  be  committed  to  memory.  Some 
easy  mnemonic  devices  are  justifiable  in  fixing  such  a 
rule  as  that  for  ei,  for  instance,  although  this  ceases 
to  be  a  rational  method  in  the  limited  sense  in  which 
I  am  employing  the  word  rational. 

Arbitrary  Spelling, — It  will  be  recalled  that  I  use  the 
designation  arbitrary  for  words  the  reason  for  whose 
peculiarity  of  spelling  is  too  far  removed  or  otherwise 
unprofitable  to  seek.  The  ai  of  Britain,  the  ei  of 


SPELLING  91 

neither  are  examples.  With  such  words,  reliance 
must  be  placed  upon  the  laws  of  mental  life  governing 
association.  What  these  laws  are  has  been  roughly 
outlined  in  the  chapter  on  Psychology.  Here  it  will 
suffice  to  refer  to  the  importance  of  frequency  of  repe- 
tition and  intensity — secured  through  interest — and 
the  varieties  of  imagery  which  characterize  different 
individuals. 

From  time  immemorial  teachers  of  spelling  have  re- 
lied upon  drill,  and  so  long  as  much  of  our  spelling 
remains  arbitrary,  will  thoroughness  of  drill  be  neces- 
sary. The  recognition  of  this  undoubted  truth  must 
not  make  us  oblivious  to  the  fact  that  mere  repetition 
easily  becomes  a  dull,  monotonous  grind.  This  may 
be  minimized  by  varying  the  nature  of  the  recitation, 
which  will  be  discussed  later. 

Intensity  of  association  through  interest  can  be  se- 
cured in  various  ways.  Limiting  the  lesson  to  a  very 
few  difficult  words  is  an  excellent  practice,  but  one 
that  our  tradition  bound  teaching  uses  far  too  seldom. 
Talking  about  the  spelling  of  a  word,  relating  it  to 
similarly  spelt  words,  contrasting  it  with  others,  dwell- 
ing on  its  difficulties  or  peculiarities,  all  tend  to  form 
some  network  of  association,  to  substitute  a  degree  of 
mental  organization  for  a  single  slender  connective 
thread.  The  play  of  humor  may  at  times  be  invoked 
to  good  effect.  Regarding  certain  puzzling  words  as 
class  jokes  and  their  misspelling  as  honestly  laugh- 
able is  an  interesting  variant  which  the  author  has 
often  used  successfully.  In  short,  intensity  of  ac- 
quisition will  be  the  normal  outcome  of  good  teach- 


92  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

ing.  In  the  past,  the  mere  assigning  of  lists  of  words 
for  study  and  their  subsequent  test  and  correction  has 
often  been  the  sum  total  of  so-called  teaching.  Two 
essential  facts  of  the  teaching  process,  preparation  and 
instruction,  have  too  frequently  been  wholly  neglected. 
A  considerable  quantity  of  experimental  investiga- 
tion has  proved  beyond  a  doubt  great  individual  dif- 
ferences in  types  of  imagery.  The  motor,  visual,  and 
auditory  seem  to  be,  in  the  order  named,  the  most  prev- 
alent forms.  In  the  teaching  of  the  arbitrary  words 
particularly,  this  psychological  fact  assumes  much  im- 
portance. It  is  obvious  that  a  pupil  who  habitually 
visualizes  will  remember  the  words  better  the  oftener 
he  sees  them.  He  will  also  be  able  to  test  the  correct- 
ness of  the  written  word  by  looking  at  it.  A  pupil 
of  the  auditory  type,  on  the  other  hand,  will  retain 
the  spelling  best  by  saying  over  frequently  the  letters 
forming  the  words.  When  he  deliberates  about  a 
word,  he  will  tend  to  image  the  letter  names  as  sounds. 
The  extent  to  which  movements  of  articulation  enter 
this  process  merges  it  into  the  motor  type  with  which 
it  is  often  associated.  Movements  of  the  hand  and 
fingers  in  writing  are  the  main  factors  of  motor 
imagery.  Such  pupils  will  probably  best  retain  the 
spelling  of  words  by  writing  them.  Their  own  test  of 
correctness  will  consist  in  the  felt  appropriateness  of 
the  motor  feelings  in  writing  the  words.  Children 
are,  as  a  rule,  good  visualizers.  The  wise  teacher  will, 
however,  make  an  appeal  to  all  three  types  of  imagery. 
Her  spelling  class  should  become  a  kind  of  psycho- 


SPELLING  93 

logical  laboratory.  A  conspicuous  form  of  imagery 
in  any  pupil  should  receive  specific  treatment.  Sug- 
gestions for  methods  of  study  could  naturally  follow 
such  discoveries  to  the  great  benefit  of  the  pupil.  It 
might  even  be  practicable  to  divide  the  spelling  class 
into  sections  based  upon  typical  differences  in  imagery. 
In  stating  the  fundamental  law  of  association  in 
Chapter  II  mention  was  made  of  the  importance  of  the 
resultant  pleasantness  or  unpleasantness.  This  factor 
assumes  greater  weight  in  all  associations  where  in- 
trinsic organization  is  difficult  or  impracticable.  Ar- 
bitrary spelling  is  a  case  in  point.  There  is  a  natural 
interest  inherent  in  the  detection  of  similarities,  con- 
trasts, and  inductive  generalizations.  The  formal,  un- 
reasoning memorization  of  a  number  of  letters  in  a 
certain  order  is  a  far  different  matter.  Commenda- 
tion from  the  teacher,  even  little  prizes  for  young 
children,  emulation,  wisely  used,  form  justifiable 
means.  An  occasional  spelling  bee  also  adds  interest 
either  through  the  love  of  contrast,  the  desire  to  win, 
or  curiosity  to  see  who  will  be  the  victor.  The  inhibi- 
tive  factor,  punishment,  is  more  difficult  to  handle. 
The  writing  of  a  word  a  large  number  of  times  is  a 
method  to  be  severely  condemned.  The  argument 
against  it  is  one  which  applies  to  the  assignment  of 
any  additional  school  work  as  punishment,  viz.,  that 
it  engenders  an  attitude  of  disgust  towards  study  and 
learning.  The  teacher  practically  says  to  the  pupil: 
school  work  forms  a  good  means  of  punishment  as  it 
is  intrinsically  disagreeable.  Good  natured  ridicule 


94  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE  GRADES 

is  sometimes  an  effective  corrective  method,  but  it 
must  be  used  carefully  as  it  easily  degenerates  into 
sarcasm,  than  which  nothing  is  more  reprehensible. 

Syllabification. — The  correct  division  of  a  word  into 
syllables  is  a  somewhat  difficult  part  of  spelling  in- 
struction. It  is  a  necessary  part,  however,  as  the  im- 
proper division  of  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  though 
not  rendering  the  word  unintelligible,  certainly  de- 
tracts from  the  writer's  reputation  for  intelligence 
or  culture.  The  conventional  value  of  syllabification 
is  as  great  as  that  of  spelling  itself.  A  prominent 
cause  of  the  difficulty  is  one  that  applies  to  other  sub- 
jects as  well,  viz.,  ignorance  on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 
It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  pronunciation,  not 
etymology,  is  the  determining  factor  in  word  division. 
It  would  be  obviously  wrong,  e.  g.,  to  end  a  line  with 
stag  as  the  first  syllable  of  staginess.  The  reader  has 
to  make  a  mental  readjustment  when  he  comes  to  the 
beginning  of  the  next  line.  In  all  cases  where  etymo- 
logical division  does  not  mislead  as  to  sound,  it  should 
be  the  governing  principle. 

The  proper  syllabification  of  words  is  best  accom- 
plished by  oral  spelling.  It  is  not  necessary  to  utter 
the  syllable  after  naming  its  letters,  as  was  the  old- 
fashioned  way;  a  pause  is  sufficient.  This  pause 
should,  however,  be  insisted  upon.  Since  written 
spelling  lessons  have  largely  supplanted  the  old-style 
oral  recitations,  there  has  seemed  to  be  a  much  greater 
ignorance  in  regard  to  word  division.  That  this  is 
at  least  a  contributory  cause  seems  to  the  author  un- 
doubtedly true.  In  many  words  there  may  be  dif- 


SPELLING  95 

ference  of  opinion  as  to  proper  division.  The  decision 
in  such  cases  is  generally  immaterial  so  long  as  the 
pronunciation  of  the  word  is  not  affected.  The  print- 
ing or  writing  of  words  with  hyphens  or  spaces  be- 
tween the  syllables  is  not  to  be  recommended.  This 
practice  tends  to  differentiate  the  word  so  spaced  from 
the  word  as  a  unit.  We  should  avoid  all  such  obstacles 
or  sidetracks  to  our  association  trains.  They  are  suf- 
ficiently difficult  without  any  distractions. 

Oral  Spelling — One  undoubted  advantage  of  oral 
spelling  has  been  pointed  out,  viz.,  the  emphasis  it 
places  upon  syllabification.  In  addition  to  this,  its 
employment  of  auditory  or  articulatory  imagery  gives 
it  great  advantage  for  minds  of  these  types,  and, 
though  not  all  are  predominately  of  these  two  types, 
none  entirely  lack  these  kinds  of  imagery.  The  larger 
the  number  of  perceptive  channels  through  which  im- 
pressions are  gained,  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  reten- 
tion and  recall.  Besides  these  considerations  and  in 
addition  to  its  advantage  as  an  interesting  variant, 
oral  recitation  of  spelling1  has  all  the  advantages  of 
oral  recitation  in  general.  The  entire  class  profits  by 
the  mistakes  of  each  pupil.  Errors  are  quickly  de- 
tected and  promptness  of  response  becomes  an  impor- 
tant factor  in  testing  thoroughness  of  knowledge.  On 
the  other  hand,  there  must  be  considered  the  disad- 
vantages of  oral  recitation,  that  it  is  frequently  prof- 
ligate of  time,  and  each  recitation,  instead  of  involv- 
ing class  attention,  too  frequently  degenerates  into  a 
teacher-pupil  tete-a-tete.  Oral  spelling  is  undoubt- 
edly an  excellent  occasional  class  method.  Like  many 


96  INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

another  good  method,  it  demands  sagacity  and  alert- 
ness on  the  part  of  the  teacher. 

Written  Spelling, — The  writing  of  words  for  pur- 
poses of  drill  and  test  is  certainly  the  best  general 
method.  Before  writing  was  invented  there  was  no 
such  thing  as  spelling.  The  only  justification  for 
spelling  teaching  today  is  that  it  is  a  necessary  pro- 
paedeutic for  writing.  Practice  in  writing  words  is 
therefore  a  most  rational  procedure.  Moreover,  as  in 
other  written  exercises,  all  the  pupils  can  work  simul- 
taneously and  there  is  time  economy.  Every  time  a 
pupil  writes  a  word  correctly,  there  is  an  element  of 
drill  which  serves  to  deepen  the  impression.  Every 
time  he  writes  a  word  incorrectly,  the  same  associa- 
tive law  operates  to  perpetuate  the  error. 

The  utilitarian  value  of  spelling  consists  in  giving 
the  pupil  a  knowledge  of  such  words  as  he  will  have 
to  use  either  in  his  school  work  or  in  after  life.  He 
should  never  be  required  to  learn  the  spelling  of  a 
word  of  whose  meaning  he  is  in  ignorance.  The  spell- 
ing drill  should  thus  be  correlated  with  the  important 
work  of  vocabulary  building.  The  teacher  should  as 
a  rule  dictate  a  word  in  a  significant  context,  the  pupil 
being  required  to  write  the  word  alone  or  the  word 
and  context.  For  example,  the  teacher,  after  the  pu- 
pils have  their  papers  in  readiness,  clearly  pronounces 
the  word  arteries,  then  says:  "The  arteries  carry 
blood  away  from  the  heart."  If  the  emphasis  is  de- 
sired on  the  correlative  aspect  of  the  work,  contexts 
or  entire  passages  should  be  written  from  dictation, 
if  the  spelling  of  the  word  is  the  emphatic  point,  the 


SPELLING  97 

words  to  be  spelt  may  be  written  singly  in  column 
form.  Occasionally,  but  very  seldom,  should  words 
be  dictated  minus  their  context. 

We  have  seen  in  a  previous  chapter,  that  it  is  prob- 
ably unwise  to  make  of  every  oral  exercise  a  lesson 
in  formal  oral  expression.  This  is  not  true  of  written 
work.  Faulty  rhetoric  may  at  times  be  ignored  for 
fear  of  distraction  from  the  main  issue,  but  misspelt 
words  in  any  written  exercise  are  not  to  be  tolerated. 
After  the  writing  is  accomplished  the  thought  energy 
is  also  spent,  so  that  the  argument  of  interruption 
does  not  apply  here.  All  written  work  becomes  an  in- 
tegral part  of  spelling  drill.  In  fact,  the  words  in- 
correctly spelt  in  a  letter  or  geography  exercise  as- 
sume greater  importance  than  errors  in  the  specific 
spelling  lesson.  They  indicate  that  the  pupil  cannot 
use  his  knowledge  in  situations  where  that  knowledge 
is  absolutely  demanded.  Where  term  examinations 
in  spelling  are  held,  half,  if  not  more,  of  the  average 
should  be  computed  on  the  written  work  in  all  the 
other  subjects. 

Correction  of  Errors. — In  spite  of  the  teacher's  most 
assiduous  endeavors,  mistakes  will  occur.  These  er- 
rors, wisely  handled,  provide  an  excellent  means  of 
focalizing  the  correct  forms.  As  Galton  pointed  out, 
an  error  clearly  seen,  recognized  as  an  error,  and  con- 
trasted with  the  correct  form,  furnishes  a  vivid  associa- 
tive bond.  The  papers  should  invariably — of  course, 
nothing  is  absolutely  invariable  in  methods — be  marked 
by  the  teacher  and  rewritten  correctly  by  the  pupil. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  have  each  pupil  keep  an  individual 


98  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

record  of  his  misspelt  words  in  a  note  book,  or  upon 
a  folded  leaflet  in  his  spelling  text-book.  These  in- 
dividual lists  could  then  be  assigned  for  subsequent 
study  and  used  as  a  basis  for  oral  drill.  "An  ill- 
favored  thing,  sir,  but  mine  own,"  says  Touchstone 
of  Audrey,  and  the  same  affectionate  attitude  may  be 
created  in  the  pupil  toward  his  record  of  errors. 
Words  which  a  large  number  of  pupils  spell  incor- 
rectly may  be  written  upon  a  blackboard,  and  kept 
there  as  a  constant  visual  reminder.  The  reinstruc- 
tion  necessitated  by  these  errors  will  depend  upon 
their  nature. 

Kinds  of  Spelling  Errors. — Spelling  errors  may  be 
divided  into  two  great  classes,  viz.,  those  due  to  igno- 
rance and  those  due  to  carelessness.  There  are  several 
subclasses  under  each  of  these  headings.  Thus  igno- 
rance may  be  due  to  imperfect  teaching,  or  to  inatten- 
tion, or  to  peculiar  difficulty  of  the  word,  or  to  that 
imperfectly  understood  mental  kink  which  shows  itself 
in  spelling,  e.  g.,  gril  for  girl  and  similar  translitera- 
tions. The  careless  errors  may  be  due  either  to 
general  habits  of  carelessness;  or  to  haste  when  too 
much  written  work  has  been  assigned  for  a  given 
period,  or  when  some  more  interesting  aim,  such  as  eat- 
ing an  orange,  expedites  the  exercise ;  or  to  carelessness 
of  pronunciation ;  or  to  the  assimilative  influence  of  a 
near  word,  as  when  a  child  who  has  just  written  Wil- 
liam Penn,  writes  pennmanship.  In  his  interesting 
monograph  on  Spelling,  Dr.  Cornman  has  attempted 
an  elaborate  classification  of  spelling  errors,  which, 


SPELLING  99 

together  with  the  rest  of  the  work,  would  repay  care- 
ful study  by  teachers. 

The  above  enumeration,  though  by  no  means  scien- 
tific or  exhaustive,  is  perhaps  sufficient  for  my  pur- 
pose. Let  the  teacher  first  recognize  the  fact  that 
spelling  errors  spring  from  different  causes,  and  hence 
require  different  remedies,  and  there  will  result  marked 
improvement  in  this  difficult  subject.  When  a  class 
frequently  fails  on  the  s's  and  p's  of  disappoint,  its 
ignorance  may  be  attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  teacher 
has  ignored  the  prefix  and  word  building  method  of 
rationalizing  the  word.  The  remedy  is  simple,  once 
the  cause  of  the  error  is  appreciated.  The  word  con- 
science  furnishes  another  excellent  example  of  a  word 
whose  acquisition  is  facilitated  immensely  by  word- 
building.  Again,  the  boy  who  is  careless  in  every- 
thing may  be  expected  to  be  careless  in  spelling  as 
well.  The  pedagogical  prescription  in  his  case  con- 
sists in  creating  an  ideal  of  neatness  and  accuracy. 
Little  improvement  can  be  expected  until  this  is  ac- 
complished. 

The  teaching  of  spelling  has  been  regarded  by  some 
educators  as  practically  impossible  under  present 
methods.  Experimental  and  statistical  studies  by 
Rice  and  Cornman  seem  to  indicate  that  much  of  the 
time  spent  in  specific  spelling  instruction  is  wasted. 
It  would  seem  to  the  author  that  the  only  valid  con- 
clusion from  their  researches  would  be  that  much 
present  day  spelling  instruction  is  not  instruction  at 
all.  There  has  been  too  much  of  the  old  Chinese 


100         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

method  in  spelling.  If  the  distinction  insisted  on  in 
this  chapter  between  rational  and  arbitrary  words  is 
thoroughly  grasped,  together  with  its  method  implica- 
tions, and  particularly  if  the  character  of  the  pupils' 
errors  is  studied  and  individual  remedies  applied, 
real  instruction  will  supplant  the  traditional,  routine 
drill. 

As  in  all  other  subjects,  some  pupils  will  naturally 
make  more  rapid  progress  than  others.  These  indi- 
vidual variations  are  perhaps  more  conspicuous  in 
spelling  than  in  any  other  study  of  the  curriculum. 
Inability  to  spell  seems  to  have  a  deep  mental  cause, 
although  it  is  by  no  means  an  indication  of  lack  of 
intelligence.  Conversely,  exceptional  spelling  ability 
often  goes  hand  in  hand  with  mathematical  or  other 
deficiency.  The  ability  or  inability  to  spell  is  fre- 
quently a  hereditary  trait.  The  lack  of  talent  would 
show  itself  most  conspicuously  in  the  arbitrary  part 
of  the  language,  which  should  therefore  receive 
especial  attention.  Unfortunately  we  cannot  say,  as 
with  music  or  dancing,  "The  child  has  no  aptitude 
for  it,  don't  worry  him,  let  him  drop  it."  So  great  is 
the  conventional  value  of  spelling  that  much  embar- 
rassment is  sure  to  ensue  from  any  such  laissez-faire 
course.  The  man  or  woman  of  today  will  be  excused 
from  singing  or  painting,  but  when  he  writes,  he  must 
spell  correctly. 

Text-books. — Nothing  in  education  is  absolutely  good 
or  bad,  simply  better  or  worse.  So  with  text-books. 
Ever  so  much,  too,  depends  on  how  they  are  used.  A 
spelling  book  is  good  to  the  extent  to  which  it  sug- 


SPELLING      .    ;  101 

gests  good  teaching  methods.  None  of  the  principles 
discussed  in  this  chapter  can  safely  be  ignored  in  a 
text-book  which  claims  to  be  usable.  Pedagogic  group- 
ing of  rational  words  or  syllables  is  demanded  by 
thoughtful  teaching,  as  is  the  constant  association  be- 
tween the  word  and  its  meaning  by  means  of  con- 
textual presages  or  otherwise.  Word  derivation  is 
another  essential  of  a  modern  text-book,  which  should 
be  so  full  and  complete  that  the  teacher  may  make  as- 
signments for  study,  or  rather  for  drill,  in  great 
variety.  In  fact,  a  practical  spelling  book  should  com- 
prise an  elementary  etymological  dictionary,  with  its 
words  grouped  on  a  psychological  rather  than  an  al- 
phabetical or  philological  basis.  No  text-book  will 
relieve  the  teacher  of  the  necessity  of  live  teaching. 
But  it  should  relieve  her  of  the  evil  practice  of  hav- 
ing the  pupils  write  from  dictation  or  otherwise  lists 
of  words  for  subsequent  study.  The  sooner  this  prac- 
tice is  abandoned,  the  better. 


CHAPTER  VII 
WRITTEN  LANGUAGE 

Value  of  Written  Language. — The  ability  to  write  in- 
telligently comes  next  in  importance  to  the  ability  to 
talk  and  read.  The  man  who  makes  a  mark  instead  of 
a  signature  is  rapidly  disappearing  from  our  midst. 
Despite  the  obvious  utilitarian  and  conventional 
values  of  writing — I  am  not  referring  in  this  chapter 
to  the  mechanical  art  of  penmanship — there  has  been 
frequently  a  failure  to  grasp  its  significance  in  the 
elementary  school  curriculum.  Under  the  designa- 
tion Composition,  it  has  become  one  of  the  most  poorly 
taught  subjects.  No  better  illustration  could  be  given 
of  the  failure  to  realize  the  true  aim  of  a  study.  For 
what  are  we  preparing  the  average  elementary  school 
pupils?  Surely  there  is  no  intention  of  making  au- 
thors or  poets  of  them.  The  school  course  in  drawing 
may  help  in  the  production  of  a  Raphael,  and  the 
music  lesson  may  help  to  bring  out  a  Mozart,  but  such 
exceptional  results  would  scarcely  justify  the  inclu- 
sion of  these  subjects  in  the  curriculum.  Similarly 
with  written  language.  The  divine  afflatus  may  mani- 
fest itself  in  the  school  product,  but  genius  will  out 
anyway,  and  it  would  be  silly  to  shape  our  course 
of  instruction  for  such  uncertain  results. 

102 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  103 

The  primary,  utilitarian  aim  of  instruction  in  writ- 
ten language  is  to  enable  the  average  pupil  to  com- 
pose correctly  what  he  will  likely  be  required  to  write 
in  his  future  life.  An  important  part  of  this  instruc- 
tion was  discussed  in  the  last  chapter  under  the  head 
of  Spelling.  Punctuation  and  capitalization  are  also 
vital  factors.  Grammar  and  rhetoric  complete  the  re- 
quirements. For  the  most  part,  the  ordinary  adult's 
writing  comprises  letters  and  business  forms.  Grace 
and  charm  should  characterize  social  correspondence, 
while  accuracy  and  neatness  are  the  principal  ele- 
ments demanded  by  the  business  world.  To  secure 
these  aims  is  the  most  important,  if  not  the  sole,  aim 
of  elementary  school  instruction  in  written  language. 
The  wisdom  of  formal  essays,  descriptions,  or  narra- 
tions, below  the  high  school,  seems  to  the  author  ex- 
ceedingly questionable. 

Punctuation  and  Capitalization. — Punctuation  and 
capitalization,  plus  spelling — excluding  penmanship 
— comprise  the  mechanics  of  written  language.  Taken 
together,  they  are  sometimes  called  dictation,  as  this 
is  the  method  often  used  for  drill  and  test  exercises. 
Such  designation  of  a  subject  of  instruction  by  the 
name  of  a  process  of  drill  and  test  is  quite  significant 
and  suggests  a  striking  analogy  with  the  inadequate 
spelling  methods  discussed  in  the  last  chapter. 

Punctuation,  like  spelling,  is  capable  of  division  into 
rational  and  arbitrary  factors,  though  here  the  former 
predominate,  me  practical  passing  of  the  semicolon 
and  the  use  of  dashes  instead  of  parentheses  must  be 
recognized  by  the  teacher  as  an  indication  of  the  rule 


104         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

of  fashion  in  these  matters.  The  principles  of  punc- 
tuation must  be  thoroughly  grasped  by,  the -teacher! so 
that  she  can  discriminate  between  the  essential  and4he 
non-essential  JXL  frfir  instruction.  Passages  for  study 
and  drill  should  be  carefully  selected  so  that  equivocal 
jjases  may  be  avoided. 

An  excellent  method  for  acquiring  abllity-to-punctu- 
ate  and  capitalize  is  to  copy  neatly_and  exactly  pas- 
sages from  literature.  Time  spent  in  this  manner  is 
most  profitably  employed.  The  passages  thus  copied 
may  be  compared  with  the  original  either  by  the  pu- 
pils themselves  or  by  their  classmates,  and  subse- 
quently discussed  by  the  teacher.  A  live  lesson  will 
result  from  the  self-active  processes  involved  in  an- 
swering searching  questions  as  to  the  reason  for  the 
various  punctuation  marks.  As  in  other  subjects, 
there  is  the  danger  of  progressing  too  rapidly.  Be- 
cause a  class  has  grasped  the  function  of  the  comma 
is  no  reason  for  hurrying  on  to  complicated  or  puz- 
zling sentences.  The  few  exceptionally  bright  pupils 
are  benefited  at  the  expense  of  the  rest  of  the  class. 
The  inevitable  result  is  uncertainty  and  lack  of  con- 
fidence. 

Primary  Work. — As  soon  as  the  pupil  has  suffi- 
cient mastery  of  the  letter  forms  he  should  be  given 
practice  in  copying  short  passages  from  the  Primer. 
Neatness-  and  accuracy  are  thft  first  considerations. 
While  these  habits  are  forming,  short  reproductions 
of  interesting  oral  exercises  may  be  written.  The 
children's  personal  experiences,  when  susceptible  to 
simple  expression,  form  excellent  material.  Stories 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  105 

read  by  the  teacher,  or  by  the  pupils  themselves  should 
also  be  used.  Well  selected,  striking  pictures,  usually 
first  orally  discussed,  jilso  afford  a  rich  source  of  ma- 
terial for  written  work.  Not  only  should  these  pic- 
tures be  clear  and  striking,  but  they  should  be  well 
within  the  range  of  the  pupils'  experience.  Too 
often,  the  picture  which  happens  to  be  the  most  ac- 
cessible is  the  one  used,  despite  its  lack  of  pedagogic 
appropriateness. 

The  development  of  written  language,  both  in  the 
individual  and  in  the  race,  indicates  that  its  acquisi- 
tion must  differ  greatly  from  that  of  oral  speech.  In 
the  latter  the  progress  is  from  the  vague  to  the 
definite,  from  the  inchoate  whole  to  the  specific  ele- 
ments. Written  language,  on  the  contrary,  must  be 
built  up  synthetically.  First  the  letter,  then  the  word 
and  the  sentence.  For  a,  long  time  sentence  forma- 
tion must_  bejQracticed  before  the  paragraph  is  ^at- 
tempted. The  simple  sentence,  as  the  unit  of  written 
language,  demands  relative  perfection  before  more 
elaborate  exercises  are  possible.  The  saving  word 
'  *  relative ' '  indicates,  of  course,  that  real  perfection  in 
written  language  is  an  unattainable  ideal.  An  ana- 
lytic process  from  the  vague  to  the  definite  becomes 
possible  in  the  high  school,  where  the  students'  writ- 
ten exercises  become  the  basis  for  a  thoroughgoing 
rhetorical  study. 

Distinction  Between  Spoken  and  Written  Language. 
— Much  of  the  stilted  oral  work  of  the  elementary 
school  may  be  attributed  to  the  failure  on  the  part 
of  the  teacher  to  recognize  the  distinction  between 


106         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

the  ideals  of  spoken  and  of  written  language.  We 
have  all  met  persons  whose  speech  might  be  charac- 
terized as  bookish.  Expressions  like  "It  was  they," 
"Than  whom  none  is  greater,"  "He  will  have  at- 
tained his  object,"  etc.,  though  absolutely  accurate, 
give  to  the  oral  speech  a  flavor  of  affectation.  They 
are  objectionable  to  the  extent  to  which  they  take 
the  ordinary  listener's  mind  away  from  the  thought 
to  the  manner  of  its  expression.  There  are  some  edu- 
cators who  would  favor  such  an  expression  as  "It 
was  me"  in  colloquial  speech.  Though  the  author 
would  not  advise  teachers  to  allow  such  expressions, 
he  is  forced  to  admit  that  it  is  only  the  traditional 
conservatism  of  education  which  compels  his  position. 
Without  going  so  far  as  to  advocate  such  ungram- 
matical  forms,  one  may  resort  to  circumlocutions  to 
avoid  bookishness.  The  ideal  of  written  expression 
while  including  clearness,  force,  and  grace,  also  de- 
mands conciseness,  which  frequently  necessitates  forms 
of  expression  far  from  colloquial. 

There  is  also  an  important  distinction  between  the 
vocabularies  of  oral  and  of  written  language.  The 
"acquaintances"  and  sometime  "strangers"  referred 
to  in  Chapter  IV.  will  fill  a  place  more  readily  in 
written  than  in  oral  work.  In  fact,  the  written  use 
of  new  words,  where  self-consciousness  is  apt  to  be 
absent,  is  an  excellent  means  of  converting  verbal  ac- 
quaintances into  old  friends.  Just  as  many  words 
would  sound  odd  or  affected  in  the  pupil's  oral  lan- 
guage, so  many  passable  colloquial  expressions  can 
have  no  place  in  written  exercises.  "I  took  the  fel- 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  107 

lows  to  the  game"  is  good  enough  for  talk,  but  must 
be  converted  for  written  purposes  into  "I  took  the 
boys,  or,  my  classmates  to  the  game."  Similarly 
' '  Who  are  you  laughing  at  ? "  must  become  '  *  At  whom 
are  you  laughing  ? "  in  writing. 

The  use  of  slang,  especially  by  English  speaking 
people,  is  a  difficult  matter  to  handle.  Here  as 
everywhere  the  teacher's  attitude  must  be  conserva- 
tive. Even  realizing  the  fact  that  slang  has  a  definite 
relation  to  the  growth  of  language,  the  school  must 
be  "the  last  by  whom  the  new  is  tried."  A  nice 
sense  of  propriety  in  the  choice  of  words  is  a  most 
desirable  possession.  Doubt  as  to  the  status  of  a  word 
should  be  sufficient  to  condemn  its  use.  The  pupil 
who  habitually  employs  slang_can_be__cured  to  some 
extent through  the  medium  of  his  written  work.  In 
this  case  the  pen  is  mightier  than  the  tongue.  Again, 
with  older  children  an  appeal  to  reason,  may_be__ef- 
fective_.  An  older  pupil  can  be  made  to  realize  that 
words,  like  people,  are  judged  by  the  company  they 
keep.  It  will  be  interesting  to  explain  the  influence 
of  refinement  and  of  fashion  in  the  obsolescence  of 
words.  ''Belly,"  for  example,  is  impossible  in  mod- 
ern society  because  of  its  realistic  picturesqueness. 
The  right  to  use  this  and  similar  words  is  one  of 
the  few  blessings  of  the  poor  and  lowly.  Appendi- 
citis cursed  abdomens  have  taken  the  place  of  "fair 
round  bellies."  The  word  "sweat"  is  a  good  exam- 
ple of  a  word  rapidly  becoming  obsolete  or  relegated 
to  the  lower  classes.  The  appeal  to  the  pupil's  pride 
through  the  criterion  of  aristocratic  usage  is  not,  how- 


108          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

ever,  universally  applicable.  The  so-called  better 
classes  are  often  guilty  of  verbal,  as  well  as  of  other 
fads.  Scarcely  a  week  passes  but  what  some  new 
slang  expression  is  launched  into  use.  Some  of  these 
expressions  rise  from  the  gutter  to  the  mansion,  others 
spring  from  the  silliness  of  modern  theatrical  buffoon- 
ery, while  still  others  originate  in  the  usage  of  the  bet- 
ter classes  themselves.  Whatever  their  origin,  the 
teacher's  attitude  must  be  discouragement  in  oral  ex- 
pression and  absolute  prohibition  in  writing. 

Study  of  Literature. — Not  only  in  the  mechanics  of 
punctuation  and  capitalization,  but  also  in  the  acqui- 
sition of  style,  the  careful  study  and  discussion  of  lit- 
erary passages  will  be  found  invaluable.  The  atti- 
tude of  literary  criticism  though  not  always 
compatible  with  literary  enjoyment  helps  the  pupils 
to  discover  the  means  used  by  the  author  in  getting 
the  effect.  Art  is  to  conceal  art,  but  the  English  teach- 
er's  art  must  consist  in  digging  up  for  her  class  the 
hidden  tools  of  the  master.^  Only  in  some  such  man- 
ner can  the  ordinary  non-gifted  mortal  learn  to  write 
effectively.  The  accurate,  thoughtful  copying  of  a  pas- 
sage from  Thackeray  or  Stevenson  affords  a  means 
of  unconscious  absorption,  which  though  mysterious 
in  its  working  is  real  in  its  results.  Every  teacher 
should  be  familiar  with  Franklin's  account  of  his  use 
of  the  "Spectator"  in  his  Autobiography,  not  neces- 
sarily to  be  exactly  imitated,  but  regarded  as  a  richly 
suggestive  field  of  endeavor.  Here  at  least  we  find 
now  one  person  actually  did  acquire  a  style.  Surely 
others  may  well  profit  by  his  example. 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  109 

The  Principle  of  Unity. — This  all-important  rhe- 
torical principle,  as  are  practically  all  others,  is  ap- 
plicable to  oral  as  well  as  to  written  language.  It 
should  be  insisted  on  first  in  constructing  sentences. 
Although  in  any  extended  exercise  it  is  apt  to  pro- 
duce an  abrupt  or  staccato  effect,  it  is  of  such  funda- 
mental importance  that,  in  the  beginning,  grace  and 
fluency  may  be  sacrificed  to  it.  The  fact  that  each 
sentence  should  contain  one  and  only  one  thought  must 
acquire  the  force  of  a  religious  dogma.  Oral  exer- 
cises where  sentence  unity  cannot  be  so  insistently 
applied,  furnish  good  material  for  written  exercises 
in  which  the  unity  must  be  applied.  It  is  probable 
here,  as  we  found  in  the  vocabulary  work,  that  oral 
sentence  unity  will  come  through  the  medium  of  writ- 
ten sentence  unity. 

The  paragraph  as  a  unit  will  in  the  early  part  of 
the  work  identify  itself  with  the  whole  composition, 
so  that  unity  of  an  entire  literary  product  will  peda- 
gogically  precede  the  smaller  paragraph  unity. 
When  the  time  arrives  for  this  latter  work — probably 
not  until  the  fourth  or  fifth  school  year — the  critical 
discussion  of  a  well  paragraphed  story  or  description 
will  be  most  helpful.  Elementary  school  pupils  are 
too  young  for  the  abstract  generalizations  of  rhetoric. 
Example  here  is  far  more  potent  than  precept.  The 
teacher  must  be  satisfied  with  distant  approaches  to 
perfection,  otherwise  she  is  doomed  to  discourage- 
ment. Oftentimes,  the  written  work  of  a  class  may  1  ) 


b^  corrected  solely  for  its  paragraph  structure.     This 
will  focus  attention  on  this  one  point.     The  author 


110         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

has  found  it  convenient  to  use  a  H  to  indicate  the 
place  where  a  paragraph  should  begin  and  the  same 
sign  inverted  to  indicate  that  a  new  paragraph  should 
not  have  been  formed. 

Frequently  pupils  will  be  assisted  by  a  Rlan.QE-Qlit- 
[line  of  pflrap^phg,  so  that  they  may  know  just  what 
is  to  be  the  subject  of  each.  Such  outlines_-shQttld 
>e  worked  out^  in  class  jjiRfngfti^  and  then  a  good 
placed  upon  the  blackboard  to  be  used/by_JJie  en- 
ire  class.  At  other  times  a  theme  may  be  announced, 

id  the  pupils  required  to  plan  their  own  parfl.grq.ph- 
ing  in  ouj,]ine.  These  might  be  discussed,  individual 
suggestions  made  by  the  teacher,  and  then  used  by 
the  respective  pupils.  Such  individual  outlines  «hmi1ri 
f  always  be  subject^  to  correction  in  the^  course  of  writ- 
|  ing.  When  a  different  plan  from  that  adopted  seems 
advisable  to  the  pupil,  he  should  consult  the  teacher, 
and  continue  his  work  if  the  change  meets  with  her 
approval.  It  must  be  remembered  that  one  of  the 
principal  reasons  for  any  plan  is  to  have  something 
which  we  can  change  if  we  desire.  The  original  idea, 
however,  forces  us  to  have  a  reason  for  doing  some- 
thing different.  Hence  the  necessity  of  consultation 
with  the  teacher. 

Emphasis. — Second  in  importance  to  unity  is  the 
principle  of  emphasis.  As  applied  to  sentences,  it 
means  that  they  should  be  constructed  in  such  a  man- 
ner that  the  reader  may  get  the  meaning  with  the 
least  possible  effort  of  attention.  What  was  said 
about  the  pause  in  connection  with  oral  expression 
furnishes  the  psychological  basis  of  rhetorical  empha- 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  111 

sis.  The  pause,  it  will  be  remembered,  looks  before 
and  after,  giving  us  time  to  think  about  what  has 
just  been  said,  and  prepares  us  for  what  is  to  follow. 

The  periodic   pause   at  thfl   r».1nsg   nf 


fore?  means  emphasis  at  the  end  of  one 
at  the  beginning  of  the  next.  From  which  it  is  ob- 
viousTthat  the  beginning  and  end  of  sentences  are  the 
most  emphatic  positions.  It  is  also  obvious  that  they 
should  be  reserved  for  the  most  important  words 
Grammar  school  pupils  should  clearly  grasp  both  the 
fact  and  the  reason  for  rhetorical  sentence  emphasis. 
Arbitrary  rules,  such  as  "  Never  end  a  sentence  with 
a  preposition,"  are_to  be  used  cautiously,  if  at  all. 
Precisely  the  same  principles  apply  to  the  paragraph, 
only  with  greater  force.  The  pauses  between  para- 
graphs are  naturally  longer,  and  visually  more  con- 
spicuous than  those  between  sentences. 

As  soon  as  pupils  are  old  enough  to  understand 
this  principle,  it  should  be  pp.raigt.ppt1y-npp1ipd  As 
in  the  case  of  unity,  so  here,  it  will  be  a  good  plan 
to  focalize  attention  by  correcting  some  exercises  sim- 
ply on  the  score  of  lack  of  emphasis.  Oral  expression 
will  furnish  more  numerous  examples  of  weak  sen- 
tence structure  than  of  lack  of  unity.  Frequently, 
weak  sentences,  taken  from  the  pupil's  written  exer- 
\  1  cises,  should  be  placed  upon  the  blackboard  for  class 
\\instruction  and  criticism.  The  pupJLwriter  himself 
should  be  given  the  first  opportunity  to  suggest  a 
cure.  If  he  is  unsuccessful,  other  pupils  may  try. 
At  times  the  teacher  will  have  to  suggest  the  remedy. 
Strong  sentences  also  should  frequently  be  placed 


112         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

upon  the  blackboard  for  commendation  and  instruc- 
tion. 

Clearness. — As  soon  as  the  pupil  is  old  enough,  he 
should  be  made  to  grasp  the^Jujr^am^nj^^^ture  of 
the  principle  of  clearness.  Since  the  purpose  ofjan- 
guage  is  to  convey  ideas,  any  interference  with  the 
attainment  of  this  goal  is  fatal.  Ambiguity  is  there- 
fore the  worst  error  possible  in  either  written  or  oral 
expression. 

The  nice  choice  of  words,  particularly  the  careful 
use  of  pronouns,  and  the  right  placing  of  modifiers 
are  highly  important  factors  in  securing  clearness. 
The  pupil  must  be  willing  to  sacrifice  grace  for  clear- 
ness, whenever  this  choice  of  evils  occurs.  Vocabu- 
lary building  and  recording,  as  suggested  in  previous 
chapters,  will  do  much  to  dispel  the  mist  enveloping 
so  many  words  of  frequent  use.  Doubt  in  regard  to 
the  precise  meaning  of  a  word  should  always  induce 
a  state  of  worry  or  annoyance,  an  affective  state  which 
nothing  but  the  clearing  up  of  the  word  should  re- 
lieve. The  stu4^  of  synonyms  and  antonyms  will 
serve  to  demarcate  more  sharply  the  distinctions  be- 
tween words.  Pr£yjaJ£njL-e*¥Of&,  stteh  as  the  use,  of 
mfc/er  for  imply,  should  be  made  subjects  of  class  in- 
I  ptructipn.  Clearness,  as  well  as  propriety,  also  de- 
mands the  avoidance  of  local  or  slang  expressions. 
Even  though  we  are  not  preparing  a  race  of  authors, 
it  is  important  that  the  pupil  should  realize  the  neces- 
sity of  using  words  which  are  understood  in  the  same 
sense  everywhere. 

Careful  Instruction  and  drill  are  necessary  to  de- 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  113 

velop  a  proper  attitude  toward  the  clear  use  of  pro- 
nouns. The  pupil  must  be  strict  with  himself  and 
form  the  habit  of  self  questioning.  "Will  the  reader 
know  what  the  'he/  'this/  'the  former'  stand  for?" 
More  than  this,  ' '  Will  the  reader  easily  grasp  the  pro- 
nominal reference?"  An  absolute  affirmative  answer 
to  these  questions  must  be  given  before  the  sentences 
are  to  be  regarded  as  satisfactory.  The  correction  of 
ambiguous  pronominal  constructions  by  the  class  is  an 
excellent'  exercise!  In  all  such  corrective  workf~tEe 
point  to  be  illustrated  must  be  plain,  and  the  pupils 
must  appreciate  the  reason  for  the  change.  Arbi- 
trariness on  the  part  of  the  teach  fir -lias^jiQ_place  in 
this  work. 

The  improper  placing  of  modifying  elements  is  per- 
haps the  most  prolific  source  of  sentence  ambiguity. 
"Lost — a  cane  by  a  man  with  a  golden  head"  will 
illustrate  this  kind  of  error.  A  humorous  example  of 
this  kind  forms  an  excellent  type  lesson.  It  facili- 
tates reference  on  the  part  of  the  teacher,  and  in- 
sures the  intensity  of  the  acquisition.  The  longer 
the  sentence,  the  greater  the  liability  of  such  mis- 
placed modifiers;  so  that  clearness  reinforces  the  prin- 
ciple of  Unity  in  demanding  that,  in  the  early  part  of 
the  work,  sentences  should  be  short. 

Redundancy. — Not  so  vital  as  clearness,  but  of 
great  importance,  is  the  avoidance  of  redundancy. 
Conciseness  is  a  more  essential  quality  of  written  than 
of  oral  expression.  If  not  carried  too  far,  itL  means 
thought  economy  for  the  reader.  Moreover,  the  un- 
necessary repetition  of  a  thought  dulls  its  edge  and 


114         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

induces  monotony.  Imperfect  knowledge  of  words, 
the  failure  to  grasp  the  full  connotation  of  a  term, 
is  often  responsible  for  apparent  redundancy.  When 
the  child  writes  "Our  play  ground  covered  an  acre, 
which  gave  us  plenty  of  room"  his  concept  of  an 
acre  probably  is  usually  lacking  in  the  definite  idea 
of  roominess.  Of  course,  if  the  reader's  concept  is 
equally  vague,  nobody  need  complain  of  the  sentence 
as  written.  Generally,  however,  redundancyjs__cLu£  to 
hasty  or  careless  sentence  construction^ the jpjrpil_ap- 
precistmg--his  error  as  soon  as  it  is  pointed  out.  Pu- 
pils should  understand  that  repetition  does  not  al- 
ways constitute  redundancy.  Oftentimes  a  word  is 
repeated  for  emphasis  or  clearness.  Again  the  very 
effect  of  monotony  may  be  desired  by  the  writer. 
When  Tennyson  writes: — 

Break,  break,  break  on  thy  cold  gray  stones,  0  Sea! 

the  repetition  of  the  word  "break"  becomes  peculiarly 
descriptive  of  the  ceaseless  action  of  the  ocean. 

Figures  of  Speech. — So  important  is  the  bearing  of 
figurative  language  upon  the  principles  above  dis- 
cussed, that  it  deserves  a  separate  paragraph  head- 
ing. A  good  simile  or  metaphor  is  a  great  aid  to 
clearness  and  emphasis,  just  as  a  pointed  allusion  or 
illustration  frequently  illumines  an  entire  passage. 
The  mere  fact  of  singling  out  an  idea  as  worthy  of 
comparison  at  once  intensifies  it.  Of  course  the  more 
appropriate  the  analogy,  the  better.  The  writings  of 
great  authors  can  profitably  be  studied  with  this  end 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  115 

in  view.  "His  mind  was  like  wax  to  receive  im- 
pressions and  like  marble  to  retain  them"  forces  its 
superiority  upon  us  when  we  place  it  side  by  side  with 
"He  was  exceedingly  impressionable  and  had  a  re- 
markably retentive  memory."  The  paraphrasing  of 
figurative  language  forms  an  excellent  reductio  ad  ab- 
surdum  for  the  class.  The  poverty  of  the  pupils'  re- 
sults will  serve  to  bring  out  in  sharp  contrast  the  force 
of  the  original  expressions.  Tom  Hood's 

Aunts   as   sure   of    dying   rich 
As  candles  in  golden  sockets. 

is  a  good  illustration  of  a  simile  which  may  be 
profitably  used  to  produce  the  despair  which  leads 
to  hope,  or  the  darkness  that  precedes  dawn. 

The  metaphor  leading  in  one  case  to  slang  and  in 
another  to  the  faded  metaphor  forms  an  interesting 
study  for  the  language  class.  Many  slang  expressions 
may  be  traced  to  an  originally  figurative  use.  Such 
work  will  tend  to  make  the  pupil  introspective  or 
analytical  in  regard  to  his  language,  and  will  still 
further  emphasize  the  important  fact  previously  noted, 
that  words,  like  individuals,  are  known  by  the  com- 
pany they  keep.  What  other  explanation  can  be  of- 
fered for  the  fact  that  "dear"  in  "my  dear  friend" 
is  a  legitimate  faded  metaphor,  while  "kids"  in  the 
sentence,  "The  kids  were  playing  ball"  is  slang? 
Such  language  analysis  is  as  entertaining  as  it  is  edu- 
cationally beneficial. 

The   pupils  should   also   realize   that   a   figure   of 


116         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

speech  to  be  effective  must  be  striking  or  novel.  With 
similes,  as  with  stories,  familiarity  breeds  contempt 
or  indifference.  When  Dickens,  in  his  Christmas 
Carol  chances  to  use  the  simile,  "as  dead  as  a  door 
nail,"  he  enlivens  it  by  his  interesting  analysis  and 
suggestions.  It  will  be  found  a  good  exercise  to  as- 
sign such  "faded"  or  "dead"  similes  to  the  class 
and  require  them  to  originate  new  or  live  ones.  The 
author  has  had  some  gratifying  results  from  his  classes 
in  this  work.  "As  cross  as  a  bear,"  "As  ugly  as 
mud,"  "As  thin  as  a  rail,"  etc.,  have  been  trans- 
formed by  grammar  school  pupils  into  really  good 
similes. 

What  has  been  said  about  similes  and  metaphors 
applies  with  equal  force  to  personification  and  allu- 
sion, which  are  but  other  forms  of  comparison.  In 
addition  to  these  figures,  grammar  school  pupils 
should  recognize  and  appreciate  the  importance  of 
irony,  hyperbole,  and  alliteration.  The  proper  use  of 
these  figures — if  alliteration  may  be  included  under 
this  name — is  attended  with  greater  difficulty  than 
are  the  figures  of  pure  comparison.  The  teacher 's  at- 
titude toward  them  should  be  one  of  encouragement 
when  they  are  properly  used. 

It  is  needless  for  me  to  say  that  no  scientific  or 
exhaustive  classification  of  figurative  language  has 
been  attempted  here.  Gummere's  splendid  book  will 
be  found  a  great  help  to  those  grammar  school  teach- 
ers who  desire  a  full  acquaintance  with  the  subject. 
The  author  believes  that  pupils  should  go  no  further 
in  figurative  language  study  than  he  has  indicated  in 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  117 

this  paragraph.  Of  course,  there  is  no  limit  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  subject  which  should  be  possessed  by 
the  teacher. 

Kinds  of  Composition. — It  is  doubtful  whether  ele- 
mentary school  pupils  should  be  required  to  know 
and  distinguish  the  four  forms  of  composition:  De- 
scription, Narration,  Exposition,  and  Argument. 
Their  reading  and  study  will  bring  them  in  contact 
with  all  these  forms,  but  this  fact  does  not  necessitate 
an  accurate  knowledge  of  them  as  forms.  Descrip- 
tion and  narration,  however,  are  of  such  importance 
that  the  author  feels  justified  in  contending  that  these 
two  forms  should  be  clearly  distinguished  in  the  ele- 
mentary school,  their  aims  and  principles  compre- 
hended, and  the  two  designations  understood  in  their 
precise  application  to  written  and  oral  language. 

Description. — As  with  various  grammatical  and 
rhetorical  phases  of  this  work,  so  with  description, 
the  pupil  will  have  considerable  practice  before  he 
needs  or  learns  any  exact  terminology.  Oral  work  of 
an  extensive  character  will  precede  written  exercises. 
When  a  certain  fluency  in  written  work  has  been  ac- 
quired, these  oral  exercises  may  be  made  the  basis  for 
writing.  They  should  deal  for  the  most  part  with 
actual  observations  or  experiences  of  the  children. 
The  best  subjects  are  those  details  of  the  environment 
which  the  pupils  know  in  common — the  school  room, 
its  pictures,  fellow  pupils,  the  school  yard,  nearby 
buildings,  etc. 

The  first  aim  in  this  descriptive  work  should  be 
fulness  and  clearness.  Ideals  of  accurate  observation 


118         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

should  be  developed  as  an  integral  part  of  the  work. 
Commendation  should  be  given  to  the  pupil  who  de- 
tects some  important  point  which  the  other  pupils 
have  failed  to  observe  or  note.  Description  by  enu- 
meration, as  it  is  called,  must  be  the  prevailing  form 
assumed  by  this  work.  At  first,  the  accounts  will  be 
little  more  than  itemized  catalogs  or  inventories. 

After  considerable  practice  in  this  kind  of  descrip- 
tion, the  pupils  should  be  led  to  realize  the  importance 
of  the  order  of  details  and  their  relative  importance 
or  subordination.  Some  naturally  gifted  pupils  will 
have  appreciated  this  fact  prior  to  definite  instruc- 
tion. Writing  their  compositions  on  the  board,  and 
placing  commendatory  emphasis  upon  their  grasp  of 
the  relativity  of  details  will  serve  not  only  to  give 
them  deserved  encouragement,  but  will  also  form  an 
inductive  basis  for  instruction.  Out  of  this  work  will 
develop  the  necessity  for  paragraph  unity  and  a  plan 
or  outline.  The  suggestions  contained  in  the  previous 
section  on  Unity  can  be  profitably  applied  here.  The 
suppression  or  omission  of  unimportant  details  should 
also  be  discussed.  The  point  of  view  which  we  de- 
sire to  create  in  the  pupil  hinges  on  the  necessity  for 
ejective  knowledge.  He  must  ever  ask  himself 
"What  picture  will  the  person  form  who  reads  these 
words?"  And  this  ejective  standpoint  applies  to  the 
order  as  well  as  to  the  enumeration  of  the  descriptive 
details.  "What  is  the  most  striking  feature?  What 
would  a  spectator  notice  first?"  now  become  the  im- 
portant considerations. 

When  we  come  to  description  by  suggestion  and 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  119 

by  characterization,  it  is  questionable  whether  we 
should  attempt  any  more  with  elementary  pupils  than 
their  mere  appreciative  recognition.  Literary  study 
should  make  clear  these  important  forms  of  descrip- 
tion, so  that  the  pupils  may  distinguish  them  from 
each  other  and  both  from  description  by  enumera- 
tion. Both  characterization  and  suggestion  will  crop 
up  now  and  again  in  the  written  work  of  the  gifted 
or  ambitious  pupil.  When  they  appear,  they  should 
receive  commendation,  but  they  should  not  be  re- 
quired. 

Narration. — Good  narration  is  more  difficult  than 
description.  There  are  few  really  good  story  tellers. 
A  story  is,  however,  more  interesting  as  a  rule,  than 
a  description.  Where  description  and  narration  are 
combined,  as  they  are  in  most  novels,  the  modern 
reader  tends  to  expedite  his  work  by  omitting  the 
former.  And  this  habit  is  not  so  reprehensible  as 
some  would  have  us  believe,  for  after  all,  the  story's 
the  thing.  The  pattern  of  the  rug  on  which  our  hero 
kneels  is  not  nearly  so  important  as  the  fact  that  he 
is  kneeling  as  he  proposes  marriage  to  the  fair  heroine. 
The  wonderful  development  of  the  drama  and  short 
story,  bristling  with  action,  clearly  indicates  the  pass- 
ing of  the  old  fashioned  novel  with  its  interminable 
descriptions. 

As  with  description,  so  with  narration,  the  pupils' 
early  work  must  be  a  kind  of  enumeration  of  events, 
generally  in  chronological  order  but  with  little  or 
no  regard  to  their  relative  importance.  Here  again 
the  exploitation  of  the  bright  or  gifted  pupils,  ex- 


120         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

hibiting  and  explaining  their  work,  forms  an  excellent 
stepping  stone  for  their  less  talented  classmates. 
They  must  be  led  to  see  that  the  suppression  or  omis- 
sion of  unimportant  detail,  which  in  description  was 
desirable,  becomes  for  narration  a  necessity.  The 
comprehension  of  this  vital  principle  is  far  easier 
than  its  application.  Oral  narration  affords  a  good 
basis  for  the  teacher's  constructive  criticism.  The 
word  constructive  is  important  here,  for  much  harm 
is  often  done  by  an  attitude  on  the  part  of  teacher  and 
class  which  is  rather  destructive  and  flaw  detecting. 
There  is,  in  almost  every  pupil's  attempt,  some  com- 
mendable element,  on  which  as  a  basis,  may  be  carried 
out  the  work  of  reconstruction. 

The  critical  study  and  analysis  of  good  stories; 
e.  g.,  Hawthorne's  David  Swan,  Irving 's  Rip  van 
Winkle,  de  Maupassant's  Diamond  Necklace,  Poe's 
Tell  Tale  Heart,  will  arouse  in  the  pupils  a  spirit  of 
ambition  and  emulation,  which,  if  it  does  not  make 
good  story  tellers  of  them,  will  at  least  have  accom- 
plished the  end  of  greater  literary  appreciation.  In 
revising  their  own  attempts,  the  pupils  must  practice 
distinguishing  the  weeds  from  the  blossoms.  Con- 
scientious weeding  of  the  superfluous  and  point-dis- 
tracting is  a  most  useful  accomplishment.  Poe's 
classic  Critique  on  the  philosophy  of  the  short  story 
should  be  familiar  to  every  teacher  of  English.  His 
views,  which  are  now  universally  accepted,  could  ad- 
vantageously be  filtered  through  the  medium  of  the 
teacher's  instruction  and  imbibed  by  the  pupils. 

The  title  of  a  narrative  is  by  no  means  an  unim- 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  121 

portant  element.  Critical  consideration  of  literary 
titles  will  form  an  interesting  exercise.  The  pronoun 
"Your"  in  Arnold  Bennett's  "Your  United  States" 
may  serve  as  an  illustration  of  a  most  felicitous  epi- 
thet. Let  the  pupils  discuss  the  titles  of  the  stories 
they  read  and  try  to  appreciate  their  appropriateness 
or  suggest  better  ones.  David  Swan,  for  instance, 
might  be  profitably  used  as  a  lesson  in  title  improve- 
ment. The  pupils  are  prone  to  fall  into  the  error 
of  having  the  title  tell  too  much,  thus  oftentimes  di- 
minishing the  surprise  element  which  is  such  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  reader's  enjoyment.  A  title 
should  be  attractive  and  striking,  but  its  absolute  ap- 
propriateness' should  not  be  realized  until  the  read- 
ing of  the  story  is  completed.  Critical  work  of  the 
kind  here  outlined  is  also  productive  of  keener  liter- 
ary appreciation. 

When  we  consider  the  Happiness  value  of  this  work 
in  oral  and  written  narration,  we  may  justly  make  the 
additional  statement  that  if  it  brings  about  any  ap- 
preciable diminution  of  the  boredom  of  the  untrained 
story  teller  or  raconteur  it  will  have  well  earned  its 
place  in  the  curriculum. 

Humor. — The  ability  to  say  and  write  funny  things 
becomes  more  and  more  important  for  our  spiritual 
welfare  as  the  world  in  its  social,  political,  and  in- 
dustrial aspects  takes  itself  more  seriously.  The  sav- 
ing grace  of  humor  was  never  more  saving  or  grace- 
ful than  at  the  present  time.  Although  being  funny 
is  probably  a  hereditary  trait  or  propensity,  it  is 
capable  of  training  and  devolpment.  Of  course,  a 


122  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

certain  spontaneity  naturally  belongs  to  humor.  Its 
appreciation,  however,  can  be  furthered  by  definite 
class  exercise. 

No  psychological  analysis  of  the  essence  of  the  lu- 
dicrous will  be  attempted  here.  It  will  suffice  to  point 
out  the  prime  importance  of  the  element  of  shock 
or  surprise.  Numerous  jokes  and  conundrums  will 
illustrate  the  vital  principle.  Another  important  fac- 
tor for  the  reciter  of  a  funny  story  or  joke  to  remem- 
ber is  the  apperceptive  preparation  of  the  listener's 
mind — the  cautious  lighting  of  the  fuse  which  will 
eventually  cause  the  explosion.  This  preparation  is 
directly  the  opposite  of  that  stage  of  the  teaching 
process  which  calls  up  appropriate  or  fitting  apper- 
ceptive systems.  Undoubtedly  an  essential  part  of  the 
appreciation  of  humor  consists  in  the  self-satisfac- 
tion of  the  reader  who  finds  his  vanity  tickled  by  ap- 
prehending the  more  or  less  recondite  point.  This 
last  consideration  has  an  important  bearing,  as  it  in- 
dicates that  a  considerable  part  of  the  reader's  en- 
joyment is  spoiled  if  the  point  is  made,  as  in  the 
case  of  Wouter  van  Twiller,  ' '  as  plain  as  a  pike  staff. ' ' 

Let  me  illustrate  with  the  old  conundrum,  "What 
is  worse  than  biting  into  an  apple  and  finding  a 
worm?"  Answer,  "Finding  half  a  worm."  The 
reader  who  may  never  have  chanced  to  have  heard 
this  joke  will  at  once  notice  the  glow  of  self-satisfac- 
tion at  seeing  the  point.  There  would  be  numerous 
ways  of  intensifying  the  surprise.  The  usual  method, 
successfully  tried  by  the  author  with  the  young  and 
unwary,  is  to  stir  up  the  little  apperceptive  system, 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  123 

rather  by  innuendo  than  by  direct  statement,  con- 
cerning the  riddle  of  two  pigs  under  a  gate  making 
more  noise  than  one.  This  will  tend  to  make  the  vic- 
tim feel  himself  a  victor  at  once  and  promptly  re- 
spond: "Two  worms."  Of  course,  with  the  older 
and  more  sagacious,  subtler  means  must  be  devised. 
Applying  these  few  fundamental  principles,  the  writ- 
ing of  jokes  and  funny  stories  will  prove  a  beneficial 
and  interesting  exercise.  It  will,  moreover,  accom- 
plish the  desirable  end  of  turning  upward  the  lip  cor- 
ners, and  broadening  the  often  long  faces  of  teacher 
and  pupils. 

Originality. — In  the  discussion  of  Imagination  in 
Chapter  II.  it  was  pointed  out  that  the  combination 
of  ideas  in  creative  activity  should  be  considered  orig- 
inal to  the  extent  to  which  the  individual 's  personality 
was  the  guiding  principle.  In  other  words,  original- 
ity did  not  mean  the  creation  of  something  different 
from  anything  previously  existing,  but  only  some- 
thing resulting  from  the  pupil's  activity  guided  by 
principles  or  standards  which  could  be  called  in  a 
definite  sense  his  own.  Originality  thus  understood 
is  seen  to  be  practically  synonymous  with  sincerity, 
and  it  is  the  distinguishing  mark  of  all  true  art.  The 
composer  has  gathered  a  fund  of  musical  ideas  from 
his  teaching  and  his  study.  In  combining  these  ideas, 
he  is  guided  by  his  own  standards  of  beauty  or  what- 
ever emotional  state  he  is  tone-painting.  The  result 
is  a  work  of  art,  the  first  requisite  of  which  is  that 
the  artist  be  true  to  himself.  The  possession  of  a 
worthy  self  to  be  true  to  is  also  to  be  borne  in  mind 


124         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

and  a  most  difficult  aim  it  is  for  the  school.  Simi- 
larly the  painter  in  making  a  portrait  produces  a 
work  of  art  to  the  extent  to  which  he  expresses  him- 
self on  the  canvas.  Smith's  portrait  of  Jones,  though 
bearing  a  physical  resemblance  to  Jones,  portrays  him 
as  interpreted  by  Smith.  The  subtle  nuances  of  ex- 
pression, the  emphasis  and  subordination  are  all 
Smith's.  This  fundamental  fact  will  forever  lift  ar- 
tistic portraiture  above  photography.  The  best,  most 
accurate  photograph  of  nature  or  of  a  human  being 
falls  short  of  being  art  exactly  in  so  far  as  the  camera 
falls  short  of  the  human  being  in  personality. 

The  application  of  this  view  of  originality  to  writ- 
ing is  obvious.  Each  pupil  is  a  person,  albeit  an  un- 
developed person.  Some  educators  are  of  the  opin- 
ion that  any  attempt  at  originality  in  the  elementary 
school  is  unwise.  This  view  the  author  belives  to 
be  due  to  a  faulty  or  incomplete  analysis  of  original- 
ity. Understood  in  the  sense  here  discussed,  original- 
ity is  possible  to  the  kindergarten  child.  In  fact  the 
suppression  of  some  forms  which  this  originality  takes 
becomes  an  important  and  trying  part  of  the  teach- 
er's work.  Suppression,  however,  must  never  become 
extermination.  The  opposite  of  originality  is  affecta- 
tion, striving  for  an  effect  in  a  purely  imitative  way. 
There  is,  perhaps,  a  graver  danger  of  affectation  than 
of  any  other  evil  as  a  result  of  modern  school  pro- 
cedure. It  should,  so  far  as  possible,  be  persistently 
discouraged.  This  danger  is  particularly  conspicuous 
in  written  language.  The  mechanics  of  penmanship, 
spelling,  punctuation,  and  proper  sentence  structure. 


WRITTEN  LANGUAGE  125 

all  have  to  be  learned  in  an  imitative  way.  Spon- 
taneity, self  expression,  tends  to  be  long  delayed  in 
written  work.  This  is  unfortunate  and  to  some  ex- 
tent unnecessary.  If  the  right  kind  and  amount  of 
oral  work  is  done,  it  can  be  so  related  to  the  written 
exercises  as  to  form  a  basis  for  original  written  work. 
True,  in  style  and  other  externals,  the  pupil's  at- 
tempts will  be  imitative.  Let  him,  however,  feel  that 
the  subject  he  is  writing  about  is  his  own.  He  may 
have  to  form  an  0  or  place  a  comma  according  to  his 
teacher's  direction,  but  his  experiences  and  ideas 
are  his  own  possession.  From  the  beginning  there- 
fore, honesty  and  sincerity — in  other  words  original- 
ity— at  least  as  to  content,  are  essential.  Ability  to 
distinguish  between  worthy  and  unworthy,  fit  and  un- 
fit ideas  and  thoughts  is  the  result  of  careful  train- 
ing and  development.  But  whatever  selection  he 
makes  or  is  impelled  to  make,  the  ideas  he  expresses 
should  represent  his  own  thoughts  and  convictions. 

Letter  Writing. — In  the  recollection  of  the  author, 
the  dullest  part  of  the  school  day  was  the  period  set 
aside  for  writing  compositions.  This  was  probably 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  instruction  was  aimless,  and 
the  subjects  poorly  selected,  oftentimes  with  no  re- 
gard for  the  pupils'  knowledge  or  interests.  The 
teaching  of  written  language  has  doubtless  improved 
greatly  since  the  author's  boyhood,  but  vagueness  and 
aimlessness  still  seem  to  characterize  this  important 
branch  of  the  curriculum.  This  condition  is  reflected 
in  courses  of  study  as  well  as  in  the  instruction. 
Some  excellent  text-books  have  made  their  appearance 


126          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

recently,  so  that  in  this,  as  well  as  in  many  other 
subjects,  good  texts  are  blazing  the  trail  for  good 
teaching. 

One  cause  of  the  dullness  of  much  composition  work 
may  be  found  in  the  fact  that  it  does  not  appeal  to 
the  child  as  being  of  any  particular  use.  No  school 
exercise  can  long  resist  the  charge  of  uselessness. 
The  surest  way  to  awaken  a  pupil's  interest  in  any 
subject  is  to  reveal  to  him  its  applications.  Let  him 
use  what  he  has  learned  and  his  realization  of  the 
truism  that  knowledge  is  power  will  act  as  a  spur  to 
further  endeavor.  So  far,  then,  as  written  language 
is  concerned,  we  must  remember  that  a  tremendous 
majority  of  our  pupils  will,  as  men  and  women,  write 
only  letters  and  business  forms.  The  latter  need  not 
be  discussed  here  as  their  consideration  belongs 
strictly  to  arithmetic.  Letter  writing,  however,  re- 
veals emphatically  the  utilitarian  aspect  of  writing. 
It  should  therefore,  in  the  author's  opinion,  constitute 
the  main  if  not  the  sole  factor  of  the  elementary  course 
in  written  language. 

The  suggestion  that  letters  should  form  the  princi- 
pal work  of  the  elementary  school  may  seem  radical. 
However,  when  we  consider  the  utilitarian  appeal 
and  also  the  fact  that  good  letter  writing  implies 
a  knowledge  of  all  the  principles  discussed  in  this 
chapter,  that  it  may,  for  example,  include  description 
and  narration,  the  extreme  character  of  the  idea  seems 
to  disappear.  The  only  difference  between  epistolary 
style  and  the  principles  discussed  above  lies  in  the 
admissibility  of  a  freer  and  more  colloquial  style. 


WRITTEN   LANGUAGE  127 

Even  this  distinction,  however,  would  not  apply  to 
formal  correspondence,  which  would  of  course  con- 
stitute one  of  the  forms  to  be  carefully  taught.  In- 
terest may  be  added  by  encouraging  a  system  of 
pupil-parent,  inter-class,  inter-school  or  inter-city  cor- 
respondence. Such  letters  should  be  written  in  the 
first  place  by  the  pupils,  and  after  marking  by  the 
teacher,  should  be  re-written  correctly  by  the  pupils 
and  sent  to  their  respective  destinations.  By  no 
means  an  unimportant  result  of  such  work  would  be 
the  constant  drill  in  correct  forms  of  address,  signa- 
ture, superscription,  useful  knowledge  in  which  many 
of  our  elementary  and  high  school  pupils  are  sadly 
deficient. 

Marking  Papers. — The  English  teacher  is  often  an 
object  of  deep  sympathy  among  her  colleagues,  a 
sympathy  explained  by  the  fact  that  she  is  called 
upon  to  mark  so  many  papers.  Anyone  who  has  ever 
done  such  work  must  recall  its  irksomeness.  Still,  it 
has  to  be  done.  And  this  for  two  reasons,  first,  the 
average  pupil  willjopt  do  his  best  if  he  feels  that  his 
work  will  not  receive  critical  examination,  and  sec- 
ond, the  marking  of  errors  is  the  only  possible  way 
of  insuring  improvement.  We  must  never  forget, 
however,  that  the  teacher  is  a  person  not  a  machine, 
and  that  there  is  a  limit  to  her  power  of  working. 
Her  highest  energy  and  vitality  should  be  in  evi- 
dence during  the  period  when  she  is  actually  facing 
the  class.  The  woman  who  stays  up  night  after  night 
until  twelve  or  one  o'clock  marking  papers  is  in  no 
condition  to  vitalize  her  instruction  on  the  following 


128         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

day.  The  conscientious  teacher  must  realize  this  im- 
portant fact  and  plan  her  work  accordingly.  One 
obvious  solution  has  been  already  suggested  as  a 
means  of  focalizing  attention.  The  correction  of  just 
one  kind  of  error,  such  as  mnphasis,  unity,  or  re- 
dundancy  will  lighten  the  work  considerably.  A  sys- 
tem of  abbreviations  (S»  for  app^^g,  C  for  pnllnqnial, 
etc.)  is  a  plan  used  by  many  teachers.  Again,  both 
good  pedagogy  and  economy  of  the  teacher 's  energy 
can  be  secured  by  having  comparatively  short  instead 
of  lengthy  exercises.  It  would  not  be  a  heinous  of- 
fense to  mark  some  of  these  shorter  exercises  during 
school  hours,  while  the  class  is  engaged  in  useful  drill 
work  not  demanding  the  teacher's  attention. 

The  rfttiirnjnft  nf  thp  marked  papers  should  be  made 

time  for  individuaMnstructiqn,  the  jmpils  consult- 

ig  the  teacher  in  regard  to  the  meaning  of  the  marks 

ot  understood  or  as  to  the  best  form  of  correction. 

A  regular  consultation  period  after  school  hours  is 

a  plan  sometimes  used,  but  I  see  no  reason  why  this 

could  not  be  done  in  a  well  conducted  class  during  the 

re-writing. 


fiJLA*>S\jJULLS(^*         __ 


CHAPTER  VIII 
GRAMMAR 

What  is  English  Grammar? — This  question  assumes 
importance  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  English  has 
been  called  the  grammarless  tongue.  If  this  state- 
ment were  true,  there  would  be  no  grammar  to  teach. 
Like  most  such  striking  expressions,  however,  it  is 
a  gross  exaggeration.  English  being  an  analytic 
rather  than  a  synthetic  language  is  naturally  practi- 
cally devoid  of  inflections.  But  this  only  amounts  to 
saying  that  its  grammar  is  different,  for  example, 
from  that  of  Latin  or  Greek.  For  years  English 
grammarians  have  attempted  to  pour  our  English 
speech  into  the  Latin  grammatical  mould.  This  at- 
tempt was  of  course  foredoomed.  The  failure  to  ac- 
complish this  impossibility  has  probably  led  to  the 
characterization  of  our  language  as  a  grammarless 
tongue.  It  may  be  confidently  asserted  that  the 
proper  use  of  the  auxiliaries  in  English  conjugations 
requires  as  much  studious  consideration  as  does  the 
use  of  inflectional  endings  in  a  synthetic  language. 

Again  grammar,  as  the  term  is  regarded  by  many 
educators,  is  an  abstruse  philosophical  study,  which 
the  immature  intelligence  of  the  elementary  school 
pupil  is  not  ready  to  attack.  We  shall  discuss  this 


130  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

point  somewhat  fully  in  considering  the  time  when 
grammatical  study  should  begin.  We  must  admit 
that  a  rational  English  grammar  is  still  a  desideratum 
rather  than  an  actuality.  There  is,  however,  a  suffi- 
cient mass  of  knowledge  on  which  all  grammarians 
are  agreed.  Of  course  differences  of  terminology  are 
to  be  deplored,  but  even  this  condition  does  not  present 
an  insuperable  difficulty.  The  fact  of  the  matter  is 
that  there  is  such  a  thing  as  English  grammar,  and 
further  that  it  is  highly  desirable  that  some  portions 
of  it  should  be  taught  in  the  elementary  school.  Dif- 
ferences in  terminology  among  grammarians,  however, 
make  it  necessary  that  we  define  our  terms  carefully; 
so  that  before  we  decide  on  the  best  method  of  teach- 
ing a  topic,  we  may  be  fairly  sure  that  we  all  under- 
stand the  terms  in  the  same  sense. 

Values  of  Study  of  Grammar, — The  study  of  gram- 
mar has  several  important  values.  They  may  roughly 
be  classed  as  first,  disciplinary  value;  second,  utili- 
tarian— and  conventional — values;  third,  propaedeutic 
values.  A  clear  grasp  of  the  aim  of  grammar  teaching 
has  so  important  a  bearing  upon  method  that  each 
of  these  values  merits  at  least  a  paragraph  of  dis- 
cussion. 

Disciplinary  Value. — Grammar  is  often  justified  as  a 
curricular  subject  on  account  of  its  use  in  training 
abstraction,  judgment,  and  reasoning.  In  Chapter  I. 
there  was  explained  in  some  detail  the  modern  psycho- 
logical attitude  toward  training  a  mental  faculty. 
In  Chapter  II.  the  importance  of  ideas  of  relationship 
was  insisted  upon.  Combining  the  implications  of 


GRAMMAR  131 

these  two  discussions  the  so-called  disciplinary  value 
of  grammar  is  seen  to  consist  of  splendid  opportun- 
ities afforded  for  the  creation  of  ideals  of  accuracy, 
clearness  of  statement,  close  scrutiny,  and  cautious 
reasoning.  It  is  futile,  however,  to  await  these  re- 
sults as  the  unconscious  influence  of  mere  grammar 
study.  The  teacher  must  be  on  the  alert  to  employ 
as  they  occur  the  many  opportunities  to  arouse  these 
ideals. 

In  referring  to  grammar  as  the  logic  of  the  elemen- 
tary curriculum,  as  a  few  educators  have  remarked 
and  a  hundred  others  copied,  there  is  reference  prob- 
ably to  the  frequent  occurrence  of  ideas  of  relation- 
ship, which,  until  recently,  had  not  been  regarded  by 
psychologists  as  a  separate  kind  of  ideas.  The  compre- 
hension of  relationship  is  absolutely  necessary  to  a 
grasp  of  grammar.  In  so  far  as  language  and  thought 
are  intimately  connected,  verbal  relationships  become 
in  a  measure  thought  relationships.  In  focalizing 
attention  upon  these  relationships  of  ideas,  as  gram- 
mar does,  there  results  not  formal  discipline,  as  usually 
understood,  but  what  results  in  practically  the  same 
thing,  a  stock  of  ideas  of  relationship.  This  definite 
enlargement  of  the  mental  content  means  correspond- 
ing growth  of  intelligence  in  so  far  as  such  ideas  enable 
us  to  comprehend  our  environment  more  readily  and 
otherwise  further  mental  organization. 

Utilitarian  Value. — It  is  difficult  to  distinguish  be- 
tween the  utilitarian  and  conventional  values  of  gram- 
mar. To  speak  and  to  write  correctly  are  both  useful 
and  proper  accomplishments.  To  understand  what 


132          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

one  reads  is  manifestly  useful.  The  influence  of 
grammatical  knowledge  upon  the  formation  of  correct 
habits  of  speech  is  questioned  by  many  educators. 
Some  regard  it  as  practically  negligible.  From  this 
opinion  I  dissent  absolutely.  All  will  agree  that  habits 
of  correct  speech  are,  as  a  rule,  the  outcome  of  living 
in  an  environment  where  correct  forms  are  constantly 
heard.  If  such  environments  were  universal,  there 
were  probably  no  need  for  the  study  of  grammar  to 
accomplish  this  end.  Such  environments  are,  however, 
far  from  universal.  Moreover,  neither  the  teacher's 
careful  speech  nor  her  insistence  on  correct  forms  in 
the  classroom  will  suffice  to  obliterate  the  tremendous 
influence  of  bad  speech  surroundings.  A  very  small 
percentage  of  the  child 's  waking  hours — I  think  about 
eight  per  cent — are  spent  in  school  during  the  first  ten 
years  of  his  life.  The  force  of  the  teacher's  example 
plus  regular  drill  on  correct  forms  cannot  hope  to 
compete  with  the  ninety-two  per  cent  of  home  and 
street  influence.  The  generalizations  of  grammar  are 
needed  to  supply  what  the  pupil  may  possibly  not  ap- 
ply when  learned  but  what  he  may  gladly  resort  to 
when  the  social  demand  arises.  The  rules  of  gram- 
mar form,  as  it  were,  a  good  suit  of  clothes  which  the 
country  bumpkin  may  wear  when  he  visits  the  city, 
or  which  he  may  acquire  the  habit  of  wearing  con- 
stantly if  he  perchance  take  up  a  permanent  residence 
in  the  city.  What  these  helpful  generalizations  are 
will  be  discussed  fully  in  a  subsequent  paragraph. 

The  study  of  grammar  has  a  more  direct  bearing 
upon  correct  forms  of  written  language.    Writing,  for 


GRAMMAR  133 

most  pupils,  tends  to  remain  an  artificial  accomplish- 
ment. It  is  only  in  so  far  as  written  language  is  an 
outgrowth  of  oral  expression  that  it  is  apt  to  exhibit 
errors  due  to  unfortunate  environment.  The  thought 
and  deliberation  required  for  writing  render  less  liable 
errors  of  mere  carelessness.  Just  as  the  artificial  na- 
ture of  this  medium  of  expression  makes  it  better 
adapted  to  vocabulary  building,  so  it  also  forms  a  good 
field  for  the  sowing  of  grammatical  seeds.  "Taller 
than  him, ' '  for  example,  may  slip  into  colloquial  speech 
long  after  it  has  been  banished  from  writing.  So  in 
written  work,  many  of  the  generalizations  of  grammar 
form  a  basis  for  the  mental  organization  of  language 
relationships  and  thus  substitute  a  rational  appeal  for 
the  inadequate  results  of  repetition  or  drill.  I  do  not 
wish  the  reader  to  construe  what  has  been  said  above 
as  intended  to  discredit  the  potency  of  the  teacher's 
example  and  drill  in  correct  grammatical  forms.  Such 
work  is  invaluable.  My  point  is  merely  that  the  time 
which  can  be  set  aside  for  such  influences  in  school 
is  insufficient  to  produce  lasting  results.  As  soon  as 
the  pupils  are  mature  enough  to  comprehend  the 
generalizations  of  grammar,  reasoning  on  the  basis 
of  principles  must  reinforce  imitation. 

The  most  strictly  utilitarian  value  of  grammar  is 
the  aid  which  it  gives  the  pupil  in  understanding 
what  he  reads.  This  is  not  true  of  grammar  in  general 
but  applies  particularly  to  grammatical  analysis.  The 
habit  of  regarding  a  sentence  as  a  synthesis  of  sub- 
ject, predicate,  and  modifiers,  gives  the  pupils  a  readier 
insight  into  the  relationship  of  ideas  in  the  para- 


134         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

graph,  which  is  but  another  way  of  saying  a  quicker 
comprehension  of  the  thought.  The  more  involved  the 
sentence — e.  g.,  the  inverted  orders  of  poetry — the 
more  necessary  it  becomes  to  grasp  these  analytic  rela- 
tionships. The  possession  by  the  pupil  of  an  analytic 
terminology  is  a  great  aid,  as  it  enables  the  teacher 
to  clear  up  difficult  passages  by  brief  references  in- 
stead of  distracting  circumlocutions.  Such  or  such  a 
word  is  the  "subject,"  this  or  that  "phrase"  "modi- 
fies" the  "predicate,"  etc.,  etc.,  simplify  immensely 
the  interpretative  teaching  of  literature.  Besides, 
this  grammatical  terminology  facilitates  the  correction 
of  errors.  "You  should  use  the  *  adverb',"  says  the 
teacher  to  the  boy  who  says  "He  ran  quick."  No 
further  illustrations  are  necessary  to  show  the  in- 
dispensability  of  such  a  terminology. 

Corrective  Grammar. — Before  considering  the  pro- 
paedeutic value  of  grammar,  it  seems  desirable  to  enu- 
merate briefly  those  parts  of  the  subject  which  have  a 
sufficient  bearing  upon  correct  forms  of  speech  to 
justify,  on  this  basis  alone,  their  inclusion  in  the  ele- 
mentary school  curriculum.  The  analytic  elements  of 
the  sentence  have  already  been  referred  to  as  supply- 
ing an  indispensable  nomenclature.  The  names  and 
principal  properties  of  the  parts  of  speech  are  also 
necessary.  The  declension  of  nouns,  except  for  the 
possessive  forms  and  formation  of  plural,  is  useless 
from  the  standpoint  of  this  paragraph.  The  declen- 
sion of  pronouns,  however,  both  personal  and  relative, 
assumes  great  importance  particularly  in  connection 
with  the  teaching  of  case.  The  distinction  of  modes 


GRAMMAR  135 

is  unessential,  but  the  tenses  of  the  indicative  must  be 
thoroughly  comprehended.  The  distinction  between 
weak  and  strong  verbs  is  useful,  as  is  also  the  learn- 
ing the  principal  parts  of  the  common  strong  verbs, 
particularly  the  terms  preterit  and  past  participle  and 
the  use  of  the  latter  in  the  compound  tenses.  It  is 
helpful  to  know  what  is  meant  by  an  infinitive,  so  that 
the  pupil  may  know  what  it  is  that  is  being  " split." 
It  would  require  too  much  space  and  explanation  to 
make  an  exhaustive  enumeration  of  all  the  ''cor- 
rective" parts  of  grammar.  What  has  been  mentioned 
will  perhaps  suffice  to  indicate  the  nature  of  this  kind 
of  grammatical  study.  It  is  a  very  useful  habit  of 
mind  for  the  grammar  teacher  to  examine  every  part 
of  the  subject  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  its  re- 
lationship to  correctness  of  speech.  Frequently  help- 
ful suggestions  as  to  methods  will  result  from  this 
view  point. 

Propaedeutic  Value. — Some  educators  lay  stress  on 
the  importance  of  the  study  of  English  grammar  as  a 
preparation  for  the  study  of  other  languages.  It  is 
obvious  that  such  propsedeutic  value  will  be  directly 
proportional  to  the  resemblance  of  the  languages  in 
regard  to  vocabulary  and  syntax.  There  is  no  doubt, 
for  instance,  that  a  French  lad  will  find  his  knowledge 
of  French  grammar  a  distinct  aid  in  the  study  of  other 
Romance  languages.  It  would  not  be  of  nearly  so 
much  assistance,  however,  in  his  acquisition  of  Ger- 
man or  Norwegian.  Similarly,  the  study  of  English 
grammar  will  form  a  better  preparation  for  the  study 
of  German  than  for  that  of  French  or  Latin. 


136         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

It  is  highly  desirable  that  an  English  speaking  pupil 
should  possess  a  tolerably  complete  nomenclature  of 
English  grammar  before  attempting  the  high  school 
study  of  a  foreign  tongue.  The  difficulties  of  an  un- 
known vocabulary  are  sufficiently  estranging  without 
the  additional  complication  of  new  abstract  gram- 
matical conceptions.  The  appreciation  of  subject  and 
object,  number,  tense,  etc.,  in  his  mother  tongue  will 
render  the  grasp  of  these  subjects  much  easier  in  con- 
nection with  a  foreign  language. 

There  is  room  for  much  improvement  in  grammat- 
ical terminology.  The  responsibility  for  the  present 
inchoate  condition  rests  primarily  upon  the  writers  of 
text-books.  We  find  a  number  of  different  terms  used 
for  the  same  idea  in  various  English  grammars.  This 
alone  is  to  be  deplored,  but  it  is  made  even  worse 
by  the  additional  varieties  found  in  the  foreign  lan- 
guage text-books.  This  condition  is  certainly  remedi- 
able and  its  continuance  diminishes  perceptibly  the 
propaedeutic  value  of  elementary  English  grammar. 
If  the  Latin,  Greek,  and  German  grammarians  insist 
on  the  term  " genitive"  is  it  not  high  time  that  our 
English  text-books  should  substitute  this  term  for 
11  possessive "?  Numerous  other  illustrations  could 
be  cited.  And  it  is  not  merely  a  matter  of  words. 
Oftentimes,  the  same  word  will  be  employed  in  very 
different  senses  by  different  grammarians — I  use  the 
latter  term  courteously  rather  than  advisedly,  the  des- 
ignation "text-book  makers"  being  more  appropriate 
— as  exemplified  by  such  terms  as  voice  and  clause. 
It  would  seem  desirable  that  uniformity  should  exist 


GRAMMAR  137 

at  least  in  all  the  schools  of  a  city  system.  Some  prac- 
tical results  along  this  line  might  be  secured  by  a  com- 
mittee, consisting  of  superintendents,  college  profes- 
sors, principals,  and  teachers. 

The  Place  of  Elementary  Grammar. — As  indicated 
above,  there  are  some  educators  who  regard  the  study 
of  grammar  as  too  difficult  for  the  elementary  school. 
Its  abstractions,  they  contend,  are  beyond  the  mental 
grasp  of  the  average  pupil.  Others  would  begin 
English  grammar  not  lower  than  the  seventh  or  eighth 
school  year.  Their  argument  is  reinforced  by  the  con- 
sideration of  its  propasdeutic  value.  Since  foreign 
language  study  in  most  American  schools  is  reserved 
for  secondary  education,  it  is  held  that  English  gram- 
mar in  so  far  as  it  prepares  for  such  study  is  best  taken 
up  at  the  conclusion  of  the  elementary  school  course. 

Both  of  these  arguments  fail  to  take  into  considera- 
tion the  tremendous  corrective  value  of  English  gram- 
mar properly  taught.  It  would  be  truly  lamentable  if 
the  poor  teaching  characteristic  of  this  subject  were  to 
lead  to  its  banishment  from  the  curriculum.  Ill  ad- 
vised courses  of  study  and  term  examinations  must 
perhaps  share  the  blame  with  faulty  teaching  methods. 
To  some  extent  the  former  are  the  cause  and  the  latter 
the  effect.  The  trouble  has  been  that  the  complica- 
tions, the  niceties  and  disputed  points  of  grammar 
have  taken  up  too  much  of  the  teacher's  time.  Inter- 
esting and  indispensable  drill  in  fundamentals  has 
been  thrust  aside  in  consequence.  These  fundamentals 
are  not  essentially  difficult,  in  fact,  the  elementary 
principles  of  analysis  are  well  within  the  comprehen- 


138         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

sions  of  fifth  year  pupils.  The  distinction  of  noun 
and  verb  is  not  too  hard  for  a  sixth  year  pupil,  nor  is 
the  recognition  of  the  principal  parts  of  speech — not 
necessarily  the  unfailing  recognition,  but  that  of  the 
simpler  typical  instances.  Number  and  case,  voice 
and  tense  can  be  so  taught  as  to  be  readily  grasped— 
in  their  simple  forms — by  seventh  and  eighth  grade 
pupils.  It  is  the  insistence  on  the  simplicity  of  the 
forms  which  principals  and  teachers  should  ever  keep 
in  mind.  The  practice  of  taking  a  poem  at  random 
and  requiring  the  understanding  of  its  every  syntac- 
tical and  etymological  point  is  responsible  for  much 
of  the  disrepute  into  which  grammar  teaching  has 
fallen. 

Grammatical  Concepts  and  Definitions. — What  was 
said  about  concept  formation  in  Chapter  II.  applies 
directly  to  the  study  of  grammar.  Particularly  im- 
portant is  the  distinction  between  connotation  and  de- 
notation of  terms.  Much  of  the  poor  teaching  of 
technical  grammar  in  the  past  has  been  due  to  the 
failure  of  teachers  to  grasp  the  nature  and  develop- 
ment of  the  concept.  The  formal  definition,  often- 
times committed  to  memory,  has  taken  the  place  of 
that  normal  growth  of  ideas  attainable  only  through 
self-activity.  Sooner  or  later  even  traditional  teachers 
were  bound  to  recognize  the  fact  that  ability  to  recite 
a  definition  was  frequently  compatible  with  conceptual 
vagueness  or  profound  ignorance.  Furthermore,  the 
demand  for  complete  and  accurate  definitions  naturally 
emphasized  the  abstruseness  of  the  subject  and  con- 
tributed its  quota  to  the  disregard  for  technical  gram- 


GRAMMAR  139 

mar,  a  disregard  which  has  come  dangerously  near 
banishing  it  from  the  elementary  curriculum. 

The  value  of  grammar,  so  far  as  its  nomenclature  is 
concerned,  does  not  consist  of  the  precise  grasp  of  the 
connotation  of  its  terms,  not  thorough-going  definitions, 
but  much  more  of  a  ready  recognition  of  its  unequivo- 
cal denotations,  with  just  as  much  connotative  defini- 
tion as  may  be  well  within  the  range  of  the  pupils'  com- 
prehension and  thus  assist  the  attainment  of  conceptual 
clearness.  The  trouble  with  many  grammar  text- 
books is  that  they  are  neither  scientifically  grammatical 
nor  avowedly  pedagogical.  Teachers  would  fre- 
quently be  willing  to  sacrifice  the  former  qualification 
for  the  latter.  The  old-fashioned  method  of  studying 
lists  of  prepositions  had  a  psychological  justification 
in  the  fact  that  it  was  based  on  the  importance  of 
ability  to  recognize  prepositions  wherever  they  oc- 
curred. Where  the  denotation  of  a  term  is  narrow, 
as  with  prepositions  and  relative  pronouns,  commit- 
ting lists  to  memory  is  not  a  bad  plan.  The  examina- 
tion of  the  uses  of  such  words  in  various  contexts 
will  furnish  sufficient  perceptual  basis  for  the  concept. 
Provisional,  intelligible  definitions  should  accompany 
this  denotative  work.  Surely  such  a  plan  is  immeas- 
urably superior  to  the  unreasoning  dependence  on  for- 
mal and  unintelligibly  accurate  definitions.  A  pupil 
instructed  in  the  manner  here  suggested  will  have 
little  difficulty  in  distinguishing,  e.  g.,  between  "but" 
used  as  a  conjunction  and  the  same  word  used  as  a 
preposition.  The  learning  of  some  carefully  worded 
accurate  definitions  may  perhaps  give  a  finishing  touch 


140         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

to  eighth  year  grammar  study,  but  even  this  is  of 
doubtful  wisdom.  Of  what  earthly  use  is  it,  from  any 
value  standpoint,  to  require  a  definition  of  the  article  ? 
That  the  articles  are  a,  an,  and  the  is  all  the  con- 
ceptional  knowledge  of  this  part  of  speech  compatible 
with  the  aim  of  the  elementary  course.  Where,  how- 
ever, connotations  are  sufficiently  simple  as  in  the  con- 
cepts of  number  and  person,  definitions  are  a  help, 
but  even  here  there  is  danger  in  the  formal  definition 
learned  verbatim. 

The  Socratic  Method. — The  discussion  of  the  preced- 
ing paragraph  brings  us  naturally  to  the  considera- 
tion of  self-activity  as  the  prime  method  of  grammar 
teaching.  The  formation  of  concepts  into  permanent 
and  organized  entities  demands  that  the  pupil  should 
use  his  own  observation,  reasoning,  and  abstraction. 
The  Socratic  method  becomes  particularly  applicable 
here.  The  child,  before  entering  on  the  study  of 
grammar,  has  had  considerable  practice  and  training 
in  grammatical  forms.  He  uses  with  fair  accuracy 
the  various  parts  of  speech  and  applies,  though  un- 
consciously, the  principles  of  syntax.  All  that  re- 
mains for  the  teacher  is  the  nice  task  of  clarifying  and 
classifying  his  mental  content.  The  labeling  of  the 
resultant  concepts  constitutes  the  important  work  of 
grammatical  terminology.  The  fifth  grade  pupil,  for 
example,  habitually  uses  subjects  and  predicates  in  his 
written  sentences,  but  does  not  know  them  as  such. 
Sentences  written  by  the  pupils  themselves  and  placed 
upon  the  blackboard  can  be  used  as  the  basis  for  a  So- 


GRAMMAR  141 

cratic  lesson  out  of  which  the  subject  and  predicate 
ideas  will  soon  develop.  Extensive  drill  with  constant 
repetition  of  the  words  subject  and  predicate  will  soon 
fix  these  concepts.  The  teacher  may  feel  fairly  satis- 
fied with  her  instruction  when  the  entire  class  has 
grasped  the  fact  that  every  sentence  has  a  subject  and 
a  predicate,  and  can  pick  them  out  unfailingly  in 
simple  sentences.  In  addition  to  this  knowledge,  pro- 
visional descriptions — not  definitions  necessarily — of 
subject  and  predicate  are  all  that  should  then  be  re- 
quired of  the  pupils.  Most,  if  not  all,  of  the  elemen- 
tary concepts  of  grammar  can  be  interestingly  de- 
veloped in  this  Socratic  manner. 

The  Type  Method. — Although  recognition  of  denota- 
tion supplemented  by  provisional  definition  forms  the 
principal  aim  of  grammar  teaching,  so  far  as  its  tech- 
nique is  concerned,  clearness  of  conception  may  oc- 
casionally be  aided  by  an  application  of  the  type 
method.  The  thorough  teaching  of  one  such  preposi- 
tion as  "in"  or  "through,"  with  special  reference  to 
its  function  as  a  word  of  relation,  will  aid  considerably 
in  the  grasp  of  the  use  of  the  preposition  as  a  sen- 
tence element.  This  is  a  good  method  in  developing 
such  a  concept  as  participle  where  an  accurate  defi- 
nition would  probably  be  insufficient  to  insure  denota- 
tive recognition.  It  should  be  observed,  moreover, 
that  in  the  elementary  school,  the  words  whose  recog- 
nition and  grasp  of  function  are  demanded,  should  de- 
part but  little  from  the  typical  form.  Ambiguous  or 
equivocal  cases  should  be  studiously  avoided.  This 


142          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

important  consideration — too  often  disregarded — 
renders  the  type  method  of  instruction  particularly 
valuable. 

False  Syntax. — Reference  has  been  made  previously 
to  the  educative  value  of  an  error  clearly  grasped  as 
an  error  and  emphatically  corrected.  Exercises  in  so 
called  false  syntax  formerly  characterized  much  of 
the  instruction  in  grammar.  This  useful  work  has 
fallen  into  disrepute  in  some  quarters  largely  because 
of  the  poor  teaching  to  which  it  has  been  subjected. 
It  has  been  urged,  moreo.ver,  that  it  is  pedagogically 
unsound  to  place  the  wrong  form  before  the  pupils. 
They  should  see  and  hear,  so  far  as  possible,  nothing 
but  the  right.  The  phrase  "so  far  as  possible"  sug- 
gests the  answer  to  this  plausible  objection.  In  our 
modern,  democratic,  public  school,  errors  of  speech 
are  as  unpreventable  as  flies  in  an  unscreened  summer 
house.  The  analogy  with  this  pesty  insect  .can  be 
further  extended  to  its  contagion  spreading  propen- 
sity. Many  a  child  who  never  used  ''ain't"  in  his 
pre-scholastic  experience,  soon  finds  it  a  welcome  ad- 
dition to  his  vocabulary.  This  contaminating  influence 
of  association  applies  with  equal  force  to  every  phase 
of  the  "doing"  side  of  a  pupil's  mentality.  Errors 
of  speech  do  and  probably  ever  will  occur,  and  the  com- 
paratively feeble  influence  of  a  careful  teacher's  ex- 
ample is  impotent  to  correct  them.  These  errors 
should  be  emphatically  recognized  as  such,  the  reason 
for  the  error  pointed  out  clearly,  and  everything  pos- 
sible done  to  focalize  the  pupil's  attention.  The  only 
caution  necessary  is  the  avoidance  of  the  exploitation 


GRAMMAR  143 

of  errors  which  are  infrequent.  These  should  be  made 
the  subject  of  individual  rather  than  class  instruc- 
tion. The  danger  that  poor  or  careless  teachers  may 
occasionally  use  such  infrequent  errors  as  class  ex- 
ercises is  not  sufficient,  however,  to  justify  the  plac- 
ing of  a  ban  on  these  invaluable  lessons. 

Specific  Methods  in  Grammar. — For  fear  that  the 
principles  thus  far  enumerated  in  this  chapter  may 
seem  too  general,  and  in  order  to  aid  the  thoughtful 
teacher  in  their  application,  a  few  discussions  of  the 
method  to  be  used  in  specific  grammar  lessons  will 
complete  this  chapter.  The  purpose  of  this  book,  as 
has  been  previously  stated,  is  not  to  give  a  set  of  pre- 
scriptions for  the  teaching  of  detailed  topics.  Never- 
theless, the  inclusion  of  some  illustrative  material  may 
find  its  justification  as  a  type  method,  and  be  not  un- 
welcome to  the  teacher.  A  summing  of  the  more  im- 
portant of  the  above  suggestions  may  also  be  helpful. 
No  effective  grammar  teaching  is  possible  without  a 
clear  idea  in  the  teacher's  mind  of  the  aim  of  the  les- 
son. The  preponderance  of  one  or  the  other  of  the 
various  aims — disciplining,  corrective,  propaedeutic, 
must  consciously  influence  all  the  phases  of  the  teach- 
ing process.  What  has  been  discussed  under  pre- 
paratory value  as  "theoretic"  should  also  be  con- 
sidered. There  are  many  parts  of  grammar  which 
while  they  have  no  distinct  value  in  themselves  are 
yet  exceedingly  helpful  in  connecting  and  organiz- 
ing other  portions  of  the  work. 

Next  in  importance  to  the  determination  of  the  aim 
of  a  specific  lesson  is  the  clear  grasp  on  the  part  of  the 


144         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

teacher  of  what  she  is  going  to  teach.  Any  vagueness 
as  to  what  case  or  tense  really  is,  is  fatal  to  the  suc- 
cess of  the  lesson.  To  this  extent  teachers  must  be 
grammarians.  Where  no  definite  terminology  has 
been  set  down  by  her  superiors,  she  must  endeavor  to 
aid  in  the  standardizing  of  a  terminology  for  her  own 
school  at  least.  It  is  obvious  that  in  no  other  way 
can  grade  correlation  be  accomplished. 

Again,  the  teacher  must  ever  have  in  mind  the  im- 
portance of  the  preparatory  stage  of  teaching.  She 
must  constantly  ask  herself  ''What  knowledge  may  I 
safely  presuppose?"  This  constitutes  the  ejective 
pursuit.  Also  "What  part  of  this  presupposed  knowl- 
edge should  be  vividly  recalled  so  that  an  appercep- 
tive  basis  may  be  supplied  for  the  new  lesson  ? ' '  The 
failure  to  give  due  consideration  to  these  questions  is 
responsible  for  many  failures  in  teaching  grammar. 
If  tests  indicate  that  the  class  has  not  the  requisite 
previous  knowledge,  the  teaching  of  the  new  work  must 
be  deferred  until  such  preparation  is  established.  Be- 
laboring the  previous  teacher  is  a  weariness  to  the 
flesh  and  an  absolute  waste  of  time. 

The  nature  and  development  of  the  grammatical 
concept  must  also  be  clearly  borne  in  mind.  The  dis- 
tinction between  connotation  and  denotation  is  espe- 
cially important,  particularly  in  relation  to  the  place 
of  definition  and  in  determining  the  character  of  ef- 
ficacious drill. 

Teaching  Modifiers, — As  there  is  practically  una- 
nimity among  grammarians  concerning  the  nature  of 
modifiers,  the  teacher  need  concern  herself  merely 


GRAMMAR  145 

with  such  minor  differences  in  terminology  as  whether 
to  call  a,  clause  used  as  a  noun,  a  noun  clause  or  a  sub- 
stantive clause;  whether  to  use  the  term  "comple- 
ment" to  include  objective  as  well  as  predicate  objec- 
tive modifiers,  etc.  As  pointed  out  before,  she  should 
do  her  utmost  to  bring  about  uniformity  in  her  own 
school  if  not  in  the  entire  city  school  system. 

As  the  aim  of  instruction  in  all  grammatical  analy- 
sis— of  which  modifiers  form  an  essential  part — is  to 
facilitate  the  understanding  of  what  the  pupil  reads 
and  to  supply  him  with  an  intelligible  nomenclature 
for  this  work  as  well  as  for  his  written  and  oral  lan- 
guage, it  behooves  the  teacher  definitely  to  keep  these 
aims  in  view.  This  utilitarian  value  should  be  ap- 
parent from  the  very  beginning  of  the  work,  or  at 
least  as  soon  as  the  concept  of  the  simple  modifiers 
is  formed.  The  importance  of  grasping  the  interde- 
pendence and  relationships  of  words  and  phrases  in 
getting  at  the  meaning  of  a  passage  will  appeal  even 
to  a  fifth  grade  pupil. 

The  main  presupposition  for  the  teaching  of  modi- 
fiers is  the  pupil's  knowledge  of  the  sentence  as  such 
and  of  the  two  principal  parts  of  all  sentences,  sub- 
ject and  predicate.  The  sentences  used  should  in  the 
beginning  invariably  be  in  the  rational  order,  subject 
first,  predicate  second.  They  should  be  well  within 
the  range  of  the  pupil's  comprehension  as  to  subject" 
matter,  and  not  so  striking  or  novel  as  to  distract  at- 
tention from  the  grammatical  ideas  to  be  developed. 

The  nature  of  the  concept  to  be  formed  is  another 
important  consideration  for  the  teacher,  A  slight 


146         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

psychological  examination  will  show  that  the  concept 
"modifier"  is  so  general  in  its  application,  has  such 
an  extensive  denotation,  and  so  rational  and  simple  a 
connotation,  that  a  fairly  thorough-going  comprehen- 
sion of  the  latter  is  by  no  means  too  difficult  for  a 
fifth  grade  pupil.     It  might  be  well  to  develop  the  idea 
at  first  in  connection  with  single  word  modifiers,  but 
phrases  and  clauses  should  soon  be  included  in  the 
work,  though  probably  not  by  those  names.    As  the 
necessary  mental  content  is  already  in  the  pupils' 
minds  awaiting  classification,  the  developing  or  So- 
cratic  method  is  particularly  applicable.     To  take  a 
specific  illustration.    Write  on  the  blackboard  such 
a  sentence  as  "The  horse  fell."     Get  the  pupils  to 
name  the  subject  and  the  predicate.     Then  have  them 
concentrate  their  attention  upon  the  subject  "horse." 
Lead  them  by  a  series  of  questions  to  see  that  though 
"horse"  is  a  word,  it  calls  up  in  their  minds  a  kind 
of  picture.     Show  them  that  every  word  whose  mean- 
ing they  know  calls  up  a  picture  in  their  mind.     (The 
figurative  and  inaccurate  nature  of  the  word  "pic- 
ture"  here   is  justifiable   on   pedagogical   grounds.) 
Write  some  meaningless  but  pronouncible  letter  com- 
bination, such  as  "glat"  on  the  blackboard,  and  lead 
the  class  to  differentiate  introspectively  between  such 
a  combination  and  a  real  word.     This  contrast  in  men- 
tal content  will  serve  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  every 
word  stands  for  some  mental i  l  picture  "  or  "  thought. ' ' 
The  transition  to  the  latter  term  should  be  made  as 
soon  as  possible.     Now,  after  being  sure  that  each 
pupil  has  some  sort  of  mental  picture  of  "horse," 


GRAMMAR  147 

arouse  their  curiosity  by  telling  them  that  you  are 
going  to  change  this  picture.  Rewrite  the  sentence, 
leaving  a  sufficient  space  between  the  word  "the"  and 
"horse,"  thus  "The  horse  fell."  Then  write 

the  word  "lame"  in  this  space.  Ask  what  this  addi- 
tional word  has  done  to  their  mental  picture,  and  they 
will  readily  understand  that  it  has  changed  it.  Give 
them  the  term  "modifier"  as  synonymous  with  that 
which  causes  change.  Then  fix  the  concept  by  ex- 
tensive drill  using  a  variety  of  simple  sentences,  hav- 
ing the  pupils  suggest  different  modifying  words.  The 
same  process  can  then  be  carried  out  with  the  predi- 
cate, adding  picturesque  adverbs,  such  as  "sideways," 
"suddenly,"  etc.  Phrases  and  clauses  may  be  intro- 
duced as  soon  as  sufficient  drill  in  single  word  ad- 
jective and  adverbial  modifiers  has  been  given. 
These  phrases  and  clauses  might  be  distinguished  from 
words  as  "group"  modifiers,  deferring  the  distinc- 
tive terms  for  a  subsequent  grade.  They  should  at 
first  consist  of  synonymous  expressions  substituted 
for  the  adjectives  or  adverbs.  Thus,  "The  lame 
horse"  could  become  "The  horse  with  a  broken  leg" 
or  "The  horse  which  was  lame." 

The  teacher  must  be  on  her  guard  against  allowing 
class  comprehension  of  the  topic  to  lead  to  non-typical 
or  ambiguous  cases.  The  failure,  on  a  large  part  of 
the  class,  to  grasp  these  more  difficult  points,  will  in- 
evitably result  in  confusion  and  lack  of  confidence. 
Dullness  must  be  prevented  by  well  planned  and  ex- 
tensive variety  of  drill,  with  reference  now  and  again 
to  the  real  nature  of  the  modifier  as  above  developed. 


148         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

There  will  later  grow  out  of  this  drill  a  more  formal 
attitude  toward  the  concept,  which  will  extend  its 
denotation  to  such  unpicturesque  elements  as  "a," 
"the,"  "some,"  etc.  The  connotation  at  the  same 
time  will  naturally  increase  to  include  all  words  or 
united  groups  of  words  in  sentences  other  than  the 
simple  subject  and  the  simple  predicate.  This  en- 
largement of  the  concept  may  be  advantageously  de- 
ferred until  the  ending  of  the  fifth  or  the  beginning 
of  the  sixth  grade. 

It  will  not  be  necessary,  nor,  in  fact,  in  keeping  with 
the  plan  of  this  book  to  go  into  detailed  consideration 
of  the  subsequent  analytical  classification  of  phrase 
or  clause  modifiers.  The  above  discussion  has  been 
sufficiently  protracted  to  serve  its  purpose  as  a  type 
lesson.  It  might,  however,  be  added  that,  from  the 
corrective  standpoint,  the  teacher  should  from  the  be- 
ginning show  the  necessity  of  contiguity  between  word 
and  modifiers,  so  as  to  avoid  ambiguity. 

The  Teaching  of  Case. — In  the  teaching  of  case,  it 
must  be  remembered  that  we  have  here  a  grammatical 
notion  which  is  at  once  formal  and  rational.  The 
teacher  should  have  sufficient  knowledge  of  some  for- 
eign language  such  as  German  or  Latin  to  set  off 
clearly  and  sharply  in  her  mind  the  nature  of  case  in 
English  grammar.  She  must  appreciate  the  fact  that 
as  applied  to  nouns  it  has  practically  no  utilitarian 
value  whatever,  but  that  as  applied  to  pronouns  it  is 
indispensable  to  the  consciously  correct  use  of  English. 
The  extent  to  which  she  considers  the  propaedeutic 
aim  will  determine  the  form  and  emphasis  of  her  in- 


GRAMMAR  149 

struction.  If  the  study  of  English  grammar  is  to 
prepare  for  that  of  German  or  Latin,  nouns  as  well 
as  pronouns  will  probably  be  declined.  This  aim  may 
also  lead  to  a  less  rational  but  better  preparatory 
terminology,  e.  g.,  the  use  of  genitive  instead  of  pos- 
sessive, accusative  instead  of  objective,  and  possibly 
dative  for  the  indirect  object.  The  preponderance  of 
one  or  the  other  of  these  aims,  corrective  and  propae- 
deutic, will  exert  great  influence  upon  the  method  of 
teaching  to  be  used ;  and  it  is  possible,  though  not  al- 
ways expedient,  to  combine  them. 

The  presupposition  in  the  teaching  of  case  consists 
of  knowledge  of  nouns,  verbs,  prepositions,  pronouns, 
and  the  subject  and  object  relations.  Since  case  is  so 
largely  a  formal  distinction,  the  varieties  of  form  of 
the  personal  pronoun  constitute  the  most  important 
denotation.  For  the  first  few  months,  instruction  and 
drill  in  case  should  be  limited  to  the  personal  pro- 
noun. The  changes  of  form  corresponding  to  syntac- 
tical relationships  serve  to  emphasize  this  important 
formal  aspect  of  the  concept  of  case.  A  rational  de- 
velopment, however,  should  correspond  with  the  for- 
mal. The  pupils  should  be  led  by  questioning  to  see 
that  the  nominative  form  is  used  as  subject,  objective 
as  object,  and  possessive  showing  ownership.  If  the 
teaching  of  case  is  begun  in  the  seventh  school  year, 
the  first  half  of  the  year  should  be  limited  to  these 
rational  relationships.  Restricting  the  exercises  to  the 
personal  pronoun  will  give  the  formal  aspect  of  case 
sufficient  prominence,  so  that  when  other  syntactical 
uses  of  the  nominative  and  objective  occur,  the  transi- 


150  INSTRUCTION   IN  THE  GRADES 

tion  to  the  case  concept  as  purely  formal  may  be  com- 
paratively easy.  The  application  of  case,  other  than 
the  possessive,  to  nouns  is  required  by  many  courses  of 
study,  probably  as  preparatory  for  the  study  of  for- 
eign languages.  It  may  be  taught  in  an  interesting 
way  by  comparing  it  with  real  noun  case  as  shown 
in  Latin,  Greek,  or  German.  A  reference  to  noun 
case  endings  in  old  English  or  Anglo  Saxon,  with 
some  historical  account  of  the  manner  of  their  dis- 
appearance, will  add  interest  as  well  as  a  semblance 
of  rationality  to  the  teaching  of  case  of  English 
nouns.  The  relative  and  interrogative  "who"  should 
be  taught  after  sufficient  practice  in  the  personal  pro- 
noun has  been  given. 

Enough  has  been  said  about  the  formal  aspect  of 
pronominal  case  to  warrant  the  recommendation  that 
paradigms  of  declension  be  learned  and  recited  ver- 
batim. Such  exercises  insure  the  retention  of  the 
various  forms  and  keep  them  in  a  definite  and  usable 
shape  in  the  pupils'  minds.  They  also  serve  as  an  ex- 
cellent preparation  for  similar  work  necessary  in  the 
study  of  foreign  languages. 

The  obvious  utilitarian  value  of  a  knowledge  of  case 
plainly  indicates  its  corrective  applications.  Here  we 
have  a  good  illustration  of  what  was  said  above  in  re- 
gard to  the  practical  use  of  grammatical  generaliza- 
tions. The  boys  who  habitually  say  "Me  and  him 
went"  will  probably  later  feel  the  social  obligation  of 
speaking  correctly.  Their  knowledge  that  the  pro- 
nouns in  this  sentence  are  nominative,  being  the  sub- 
ject of  "went,"  gives  them  a  rule  to  which  they  may 


GRAMMAR  151 

refer  when  in  doubt.  The  purpose  of  much  of  the 
drill  in  case  should  he  corrective.  In  the  first  year 
of  the  teaching  of  this  subject,  examples  should  be 
limited  to  plain  subject  nominatives  and  objectives. 

Later,  predicate  nominatives  and  appositives  may 
be  taught  and  drilled  upon.  Frequent  exercises  in 
placing  the  proper  pronouns  in  the  blank  spaces  of 
sentences  is  an  excellent  plan  and  one  which  has  none 
of  the  supposed  disadvantages  of  placing  the  incor- 
rect forms  before  the  pupils.  For  example,  place  a 
number  of  sentences  requiring  ' '  he  "  or  ' '  him ' '  on  the 
blackboard  and  have  the  pupils  write  the  correct 

form.  " is  going  away."  "I  saw  ." 

' '  Mary  is  older  than , ' '  etc. 

Voice  of  Verbs. — Voice  has  been  selected  as  a  type 
lesson  because  it  illustrates  so  well  the  confusion  of 
ideas  characteristic  of  modern  English  grammar. 
There  are  two  fundamentally  distinct  notions  of  voice. 
Courses  of  study  frequently  indicate  which  of  the  two 
is  to  be  taught,  at  the  same  time  giving,  rather  incon- 
sistently, to  the  principal  a  choice  of  text-books  taking 
the  other  point  of  view.  The  method  of  teaching  this 
topic  will  be  materially  influenced  by  our  acceptance 
of  voice  as  ( a )  a  property  of  transitive  verbs  alone,  or 
(b)  a  property  of  all  verbs.  The  decision  will  affect 
particularly  the  rational  aspect  of  the  teaching. 
There  is  with  voice,  as  with  case,  a  prominent  formal 
side,  which  will  not  be  materially  affected  by  the  above 
decision.  In  the  following  discussion,  the  author  will 
assume  voice  to  be  a  property  solely  of  transitive 
verbs,  as  this  seems  the  more  logical  grammatical  view- 


152         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

point.  It  is  important  to  add,  however,  that  the  other 
way  of  considering1  voice  has  much  to  be  said  in  its 
favor. 

We  must  presuppose  here  a  knowledge  of  the  prin- 
cipal parts  of  speech,  of  the  subject-predicate  relation- 
ship, the  object,  both  verbal  and  prepositional,  and 
the  distinction  between  transitive  and  intransitive. 
The  latter  presupposition  is  absolutely  essential  to 
teaching  voice  in  the  sense  here  taken.  It  would  not 
be  necessary  if  we  considered  voice  as  a  property  of 
intransitive  verbs.  The  definition  of  transitive  can- 
not properly  use  the  word  object  without  already  as- 
suming a  knowledge  of  voice.  The  idea  to  be  conveyed 
is  that  the  action  passes  to  a  receiver.  A  useful  part 
of  the  preparatory  stage  would  consist  of  exercises 
in  which  the  pupils  should  select  transitive  and  in- 
transitive verbs,  the  former  being  used  in  both  active 
and  passive  forms,  though  not  so  named.  After  this, 
the  pupils  might  read  and  the  teacher  write  upon  the 
board  those  sentences  containing  transitive  verbs. 
These  verbs  should  be  underlined,  and  the  pupils'  at- 
tention invited  to  a  property  which  they  possess  and 
which  the  intransitive  verbs  lack.  The  name  of  this 
property  should  be  given  only  after  some  elementary 
comprehension  of  it  has  been  attained. 

The  exercise  should  have  been  so  planned  that  about 
half  of  the  verbs  were  active  and  the  others  passive. 
Needless  to  say,  they  should  be  extremely  simple  and 
typical.  Leaving  the  selection  of  sentences  for  such 
lessons  to  the  spur  of  the  moment  is  a  hazardous 
practice  for  the  most  resourceful  teacher.  In  each 


GRAMMAR  153 

sentence  the  pupils  should  be  asked  to  name  the  doer 
and  the  receiver  of  the  action.  They  should  then  be 
led  to  see  that  in  some  cases  the  subject  does  the  act 
and  in  others  it  receives  the  act.  A  distinguishing 
mark,  e.  g.,  a  small  circle,  might  then  be  placed  over 
each  active  verb  and  a  cross  over  each  passive  verb. 
The  pupils  should  next  be  asked  to  transform  each 
sentence,  without  altering  its  meaning,  changing  it 
so  that  each  doing  subject  becomes  a  receiver  and  each 
receiving  subject  a  doer,  and  these  changed  forms 
again  marked  with  circle  and  cross.  The  ability  thus 
to  change  the  verb  from  one  form  to  the  other  is  made 
an  integral  part  of  the  concept  and  thus  definitely 
excludes  the  intransitive  verb.  Pupils  may  be  shown 
the  impossibility  of  effecting  this  transformation  with 
intransitive  verbs,  using  such  sentences  as  "The  boys 
ran  down  the  street." 

The  concept  may  now  be  labeled  by  the  term 
"voice"  and  provisional  definitions  obtained  from  the 
class,  the  ability  to  change  from  subject  doer  to  sub- 
ject receiver  being  the  essential  feature.  Explaining 
the  appropriateness  of  grammatical  terminology  may 
at  times  assist  in  the  retention  of  a  term  and  help  to 
fix  its  meaning.  The  advisability  of  such  a  procedure 
must  be  determined  by  considering  the  real  benefit 
derived  from  it.  The  significance  of  the  term  voice 
is  perhaps  too  far-fetched  to  be  properly  taught  in  this 
manner.  Not  so,  however,  with  the  terms  active  and 
passive.  The  former  word  is  probably  already  in  the 
pupils '  vocabulary  and  its  appropriateness  will  be 
readily  grasped.  The  term  passive  will  perhaps  re- 


154         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

quire  teaching.  This  is  advisable  not  only  on  account 
of  its  grammatical  significance,  but  because  it  will  be 
a  useful  addition  to  the  pupils'  general  vocabulary. 
The  word  should  be  used  in  a  great  variety  of  con- 
texts, looked  up  in  the  dictionary,  and  recorded  in  the 
pupils'  individual  note  books.  "  The  child  was  carried 
up  stairs ' '  contrasted  with  '  *  The  child  carried  her  doll 
up  stairs ' '  well  illustrates  the  passivity  and  activity  of 
the  child.  Numerous  illustrations  of  this  character 
should  be  given. 

The  caution  should  be  repeated  here  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  keep  all  illustrations  simple  and  typical. 
There  is  no  bounden  obligation  upon  the  teacher  to 
explain  every  verb  which  occurs  in  a  language  pas- 
sage. Such  class  explanations  are  not  even  justified  by 
questions  from  the  brighter  pupils,  who  may  very 
wisely  be  told  to  come  to  the  teacher  after  school 
hours  for  individual  instruction.  Such  a  suggestion 
should,  however,  be  given  in  a  spirit  of  encouraging 
commendation  and  not  rebuke.  Sometimes,  too,  these 
questions  are  only  the  natural  outcome  of  an  osten- 
tatious desire  of  the  pupils  to  hear  themselves  talk,  a 
propensity  to  which  there  seems  to  be  no  age  or  sex 
limit.  Whatever  the  motive  of  the  question,  it  is  ob- 
viously wrong  to  waste  the  time  of  the  class  and  cause 
mental  confusion  by  discussing  complex  matters  be- 
yond the  comprehension  of  the  average  pupil.  Sen- 
tences in  which  the  participial  portion  of  the  passive 
verb  may  be  construed  as  a  predicate  adjective,  or  in 
which  the  phrase  containing  the  doer  of  the  act  must 
be  supplied  should  certainly  be  avoided  in  the  begin- 


GRAMMAR  155 

ning  and  perhaps  throughout  the  elementary  course. 
It  would  be  the  height  of  folly,  for  instance,  to  analyze 
such  a  sentence  as  "The  boy  was  known  to  his  class- 
mates but  unknown  to  his  teachers."  There  is  per- 
haps a  real  place  in  school  work  for  exercising  the 
puzzle  instinct,  but  confusion  is  certain  to  follow  its 
application  to  grammar  teaching.  The  reader  who 
has  had  any  teaching  experience  will  doubtless  pardon 
the  protracted  repetition  of  the  caution  contained  in 
this  paragraph.  One  could  preach  from  now  to  dooms- 
day without  eradicating  the  evil. 

After  the  concept  of  voice  has  been  adequately  de- 
veloped in  the  above  rational  way,  emphasis  should  be 
laid  on  the  formal  side.  The  method  of  constructing 
passive  forms  should  be  pointed  out,  particularly  the 
use  of  the  participle  instead  of  the  preterit.  The  ob- 
vious corrective  applications  of  this  aspect  of  the  sub- 
ject should  form  a  basis  for  considerable  drill.  Sen- 
tences with  the  participle  omitted  should  be  placed  on 
the  blackboard  to  be  filled  in  by  the  pupils.  A  con- 
siderable knowledge  of  preterits  and  past  participles 
of  irregular  verbs  is  a  necessary  presupposition  of  this 
work.  Drill  in  conjugation  both  active  and  passive 
assumes  importance,  when  we  consider  the  propa?- 
deutic  value  of  English  grammar.  From  no  other 
point  of  view — if  we  except  the  verb  "to  be" — is  it 
justifiable  in  the  elementary  school. 

Tense. — The  proper  teaching  of  tense  again  illus- 
trates the  necessity  for  the  teacher  to  make  up  her 
mind  definitely  as  to  what  grammatical  tense  really  is. 
As  in  so  many  parts  of  grammar  there  is  the  formal 


156          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

as  well  as  the  rational  side.  Considered  from  the 
standpoint  of  its  propaedeutic  value,  the  formal  side 
is  the  more  important.  However  desirable  it  might  be, 
there  is  some  doubt  as  to  the  practicability  of  a  uni- 
form terminology  for  tense  in  the  various  modern  and 
classical  languages.  The  wisest  course  for  the  teacher 
in  consultation  with  the  principal,  if  given  any  choice 
in  the  matter,  is  to  select  a  grammar  text-book  which 
seems  to  present  a  logical  and  teachable  treatment, 
and  follow  it  faithfully.  At  the  same  time,  all  live 
teachers  and  supervising  authorities  owe  it  to  their 
profession  to  aid  in  the  attainment  of  a  uniform 
terminology  for  English  grammar  at  least. 

No  further  presupposition  for  the  teaching  of  tense 
is  necessary  than  the  knowledge  of  the  verb  in  its 
general  nature  as  indicating  action  and  the  distinc- 
tion of  time  as  present,  past,  and  future.  The  latter 
consideration  should  perhaps  be  included  as  the  prin- 
cipal factor  of  the  preparatory  stage  of  the  teaching. 
The  words  "present"  and  "past"  are  probably  "old 
friends"  in  the  pupils'  vocabulary.  The  word  "fu- 
ture" though  likely  an  "acquaintance"  should 
become  thoroughly  familiar.  In  fact,  the  concept 
"time,"  regarding  as  its  connotation  the  three  ele- 
ments present,  past,  and  future,  might  well  be  made 
the  subject  of  an  introductory  lesson.  Oral  and  writ- 
ten language  work  on  this  theme  will  be  found  an 
interesting  method  of  fixing  the  concept.  Such  con- 
siderations as  what  the  pupils  can  remember  of  their 
past  lives,  what  aspirations  they  have  for  the  future, 
and  accounts  of  their  present  home  and  school  life 


GRAMMAR  157 

suggest  appropriate  topics.  Emphasis  on  the  words 
present,  past,  and  future  should  accompany  these  ex- 
ercises. 

The  fact  that  a  verb  can  show  by  its  form  whether 
the  action  is  present,  past,  or  future  should  then  be 
stated  by  the  teacher,  no  mention  whatever  being  made 
of  the  word  tense.  The  curiosity  of  the  pupils  would 
thus  be  aroused  as  to  how  verb  changes  could  accom- 
plish this  end.  Typical  sentences,  in  which  the  same 
verb  is  used  to  indicate  the  different  time  ideas,  should 
be  placed  upon  the  blackboard,  and  the  pupils  should 
point  out  and  make  lists  of  the  different  forms.  To 
indicate  present  time,  the  progressive  form — not  so 
named  however — should  preferably  be  employed.  It 
has  the  advantage  of  clearly  emphasizing  the  time 
idea.  "I  am  writing"  is  unequivocably  present  in  its 
significance,  while  "I  write"  can  and  generally  does 
express  mere  ability.  The  past  and  future,  however, 
present  no  similar  difficulty.  In  fact,  examples  should 
be  given  of  the  various  tense  forms  of  the  indicative 
mode,  though  only  the  threefold  time  significance 
should  be  mentioned  by  the  teacher  or  required  from 
the  pupils. 

After  a  month's  drill  in  such  exercises,  the  pupil  is 
ready  for  the  word  " tense"  as  a  formal  label.  The 
term  should  be  introduced  after  the  distinction  be- 
tween ordinary  past  and  present  perfect  has  been  de- 
veloped. The  need  of  a  terminology  will  then  be  ap- 
parent to  the  pupils.  The  three  compound  tenses  of 
the  indicative  mode  can  also  be  taught  as  rational  time 
distinctions  and  related  to  their  designations  as  action 


158          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

completed  in  the  present — present  perfect,  completed 
in  the  past — past  perfect,  and  to  be  completed  in  the 
future — future  perfect.  The  recognition  of  these 
tenses  by  their  form  and  the  proper  auxiliaries  to  be 
used  in  their  construction  soon  becomes  the  essential 
part  of  the  work.  Instruction  and  drill  in  the  tenses 
of  the  indicative  mode  can  wisely  be  given  in  con- 
nection, of  course,  with  other  grammar  work,  an  en- 
tire term. 

The  proper  use  of  will  and  shall,  and  of  the  preterit 
and  past  participle  constitutes  the  principal  correc- 
tional application  of  the  first  work  in  tense.  The  fu- 
ture auxiliaries  are  peculiarly  difficult,  although  much 
practice  in  the  correct  forms  should  precede  the  in- 
struction. Practice  and  precept  combined,  however, 
often  fail  to  bring  about  the  desired  result.  Nil  des- 
perandum  must  be  the  teacher's  watchword.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  colloquial  disregard  for  the  dis- 
tinction of  will  and  shall  may  eventually  destroy  it. 
This  destruction  unfortunately  is  not  yet  accomplished, 
and  the  teacher  must  ever  be  a  conservative  barrier 
against  all  so-called  corrupting  influences.  The  cor- 
rect formation  of  the  perfect  tenses  of  the  common 
verbs  see,  go,  come,  write,  etc.,  will  also  test  the 
average  teacher's  patience  and  ingenuity.  The  con- 
ventional value  of  success  here  demands  that  she  leave 
no  stone  unturned  to  accomplish  lasting  results. 
Variety  of  drill  and  vigilant  correction  will  do  much. 

The  tenses  formed  with  may,  can,  must,  could, 
should,  would,  etc. — sometimes  called  the  potential 
mode — must  be  taught  in  a  purely  formal  way.  The 


GRAMMAR  159 

same  is  true  of  the  subjunctive  and  infinitive  forms. 
In  fact  the  formal  side  of  the  tense  concept  may  well 
assume  prime  importance  when  drill  in  conjugation  is 
begun.  Even  in  the  indicative  mode,  the  so-called 
present  tense  frequently  indicates  future  time.  The 
correct  use  of  the  auxiliaries,  e.  g.,  may  and  can,  forms 
the  principal  correctional  aspect  of  the  subsequent  ex- 
ercises in  tense. 

A  Caution. — As  indicated  several  times,  it  is  by  no 
means  the  purpose  of  this  book  to  present  detailed 
lessons  in  the  various  topics.  Even  if  this  procedure 
were  deemed  desirable,  the  size  of  the  work  would 
make  it  decidedly  unwieldy.  The  aim  is  rather  to 
arouse  interest  in  method  and  render  teachers  thought- 
ful. Where  detailed  advice  is  suggested,  it  must  be 
taken  for  what  it  is  worth.  Such  suggestions  are  often 
most  valuable  when  they  lead  the  teacher  to  do  some- 
thing else.  The  only  point  is  that  whatever  she  does 
should  be  planned  and  definitely  thought  out,  not  mere 
haphazard,  nor  servile  imitation.  The  specific  lessons, 
of  this  chapter  were  included  so  as  to  clarify  and  il- 
lustrate some  general  principles  which  seemed  impor- 
tant. It  is  quite  likely  that  a  thoughtful  teacher  may 
disagree  with  the  method  of  presentation  here  dis- 
cussed, and  if  she  does,  her  way  is  quite  as  apt  to  be 
right  as  that  given  above.  In  fact  it  is  almost  sure 
to  be,  for  after  all,  teaching  is  an  art  and  method 
largely  individual  or  personal.  We  must  never  over- 
look, however,  the  importance  of  the  principles  in- 
volved in  our  teaching,  and  we  should  ever  be  ready  to 
give  a  rational  explanation  of  our  methods. 


CHAPTER  IX 
ARITHMETIC 

Place  of  Arithmetic, — Arithmetic  holds  a  unique 
position  in  modern  elementary  education.  Despite  ex- 
perimental research  and  pedagogic  criticism,  this  sub- 
ject remains  a  sort  of  idol  before  which  our  teachers 
bow  in  reverential  worship.  In  many  schools,  arith- 
metic still  monopolizes  the  freshest,  brightest  morning 
period,  hopelessly  crowding  out  such  minor  subjects 
as  reading,  grammar,  and  science.  When  a  pupil  from 
another  city  applies  for  admission  to  a  school,  his 
grading  is  frequently  made  to  depend  almost  entirely 
upon  his  arithmetical  ability.  If  he  fails  to  attain  a 
certain  average  in  the  term  examination  in  this  one 
subject,  he  is  often  forced  to  repeat  the  whole  term's 
work.  Educators  and  the  general  public  are  both  re- 
sponsible for  this  condition.  The  former  have  laid 
great  stress  on  the  value  of  arithmetic  as  mental  train- 
ing, the  latter  have  been  particularly  impressed  by  its 
utilitarian  value.  A  detailed  discussion  of  these  and 
other  claims  will  be  necessary  in  order  to  give  the 
teacher  an  attitude  toward  the  subject  which  will  in- 
sure aimful  teaching. 

Arithmetic  as  Mental  Training. — Arithmetic  has 
long  been  regarded — and  the  opinion  is  still  rife — as 

160 


ARITHMETIC  161 

an  excellent  mental  gymnastic.  The  doctrine  of  for- 
mal discipline  has  been  wont  to  employ  this  subject 
as  chief  witness  for  the  defense.  Accepting  this  doc- 
trine in  the  modified  form  discussed  in  Chapter  II., 
there  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  the  value  of  arith- 
metic as  mental  training,  particularly  in  regard  to  the 
creation  of  an  ideal  of  accuracy.  The  correction  of  a 
solution  is  in  itself  sufficiently  disagreeable  to  serve 
as  an  inhibition  on  carelessness.  Used  as  a  text  by 
the  teacher  and  applied  to  similar  situations  in  other 
subjects  as  well  as  to  life,  there  will  tend  to  be  formed 
a  morally  tinged  concept  of  accuracy.  Again,  the  ab- 
solute distinction  of  correct  and  incorrect  is  perhaps 
emphasized  more  strongly  in  arithmetic  than  in  any 
other  subject  of  the  curriculum.  "Almost  right" 
tends  to  identify  itself  with  "wrong"  in  the  pupil's 
mind.  This  furnishes  a  striking  analogy  to  the  ab- 
soluteness characteristic  of  morality.  The  apprecia- 
tion of  this  analogy,  however,  cannot  safely  be  left  to 
mere  unconscious  assimilation  by  the  pupil.  It  must 
be  brought  out  with  a  definiteness  as  emphatic  as  pos- 
sible. 

The  so-called  discipline  of  difficulty  need  take  but 
little  of  our  attention.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the 
overcoming  of  difficulties  indicates  the  possession  of  a 
strong  mental  fibre.  It  is  by  no  means  equally  cer- 
tain that  such  overcoming  will  produce  this  strength. 
Surely  it  is  unwise  to  place  obstacles  in  the  pupil's 
path.  Difficulties  in  sufficient  variety  and  number 
will  appear  in  the  usual  course.  When  it  is  argued 
that  intrinsically  difficult  and  dull  exercises  have  pro- 


162         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

duced  strong  mental  types,  it  is  perhaps  but  another 
way  of  saying  that  none  but  natively  strong  minds 
have  been  able  to  survive. 

The  training  in  attention,  abstraction,  and  reasoning 
attributed  to  arithmetic  is  to  be  admitted  merely  so 
far  as  implied  in  the  two  ideals  discussed  above,  ac- 
curacy and  moral  absoluteness.  The  teacher  can  aid, 
so  far,  for  example,  as  attention  is  concerned,  by  show- 
ing its  importance  as  a  factor  in  the  attainment  of 
accuracy.  Except  in  so  far  as  the  organization  and 
fixing  of  ideas  of  relationship  are  included,  as  in 
grammar,  it  cannot  be  maintained  that  arithmetic 
trains  either  reasoning  or  abstraction.  It  seems,  on 
the  whole,  that  the  value  of  arithmetic  as  mental  train- 
ing has  been  vaguely  understood  and  greatly  exag- 
gerated. 

Utilitarian  Value. — To  the  general  public,  arithme- 
tic makes  a  specifically  utilitarian  appeal.  The  par- 
ent is  proud  to  know  that  schooling  has  enabled  his 
child  to  compute  the  proper  change  out  of  a  quarter 
when  he  sends  him  for  a  five  cent  cake  of  soap,  or  that 
he  can  determine  the  cost  of  five  and  a  half  yards 
of  silk  at  ten  cents  a  yard.  The  parent  is  not  a  peda- 
gogue, and  he  attributes  in  a  vague  way  similar  practi- 
cal functions  to  the  entire  arithmetic  course.  The  pub- 
lic fails  to  realize  the  painfully  static  conservatism  of 
modern  educational  practice.  It  is  scarcely  believable 
that  business  methods  hundreds  of  years  old  are  taught 
in  many  schools  today.  They  have  rooted  themselves 
so  firmly  that  eradication  becomes  a  slow  and  painful 
process.  Even  when  modern  thought  forces  changes 


ARITHMETIC  163 

in  courses  of  study,  teachers  show  a  remarkable  ten- 
dency to  cling  to  the  old  practices.  It  occurs  not 
infrequently  that  the  theoretic  pendulum  swings  back 
and  gives  to  the  old-fashioned  immutable  teacher  ap- 
parent justification  for  her  changeless  methods.  It  is 
possible  that  the  expression  "Divine  Profession"  as 
applied  to  teaching  may  find  some  extenuation  in  the 
immutability  characteristic  of  many  teachers. 

The  outlook  for  a  real  utilitarianism  is  hopeful. 
Ever  so  much  useless  matter  has  been  eliminated  from 
recent  syllabi  in  arithmetic,  and  will  in  course  of  time 
disappear  even  from  the  class  room.  This  elimination 
has  included  many  old-fashioned  business  methods, 
such  as  compound  partnership  and  equation  of  pay- 
ments, and  also  such  technical  matters  as  troy  weight 
and  apothecaries'  weight  whose  application  to  practical 
life  is  narrowed  to  a  few  trades  or  professions.  Much 
still  remains,  however,  which  could  be  wisely  dispensed 
with.  It  is  intrenched  not  only  in  tradition  but  also 
fortifies  itself  behind  the  vague  ramparts  of  mental 
training.  Much  complicated  work  in  absurd  fractions, 
for  instance,  still  forms  a  part  of  the  course  in  worry. 
The  ability  to  handle  such  fractions  will  not  be  re- 
quired of  more  than  one  man  in  ten  thousand,  yet  con- 
siderable time  is  still  wasted  on  work  of  this  character. 
For  all  practical  purposes,  decimals  have  supplanted 
fractions,  and  the  school,  in  so  far  as  it  endeavors  to 
make  its  aim  utilitarian,  should  conform  to  the  prac- 
tice of  the  business  world.  Simple  logarithmic  tables 
would  also  constitute  a  welcome  addition  to  the  course 
in  elementary  mathematics.  The  applications  of  log- 


164          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

arithms  are  so  manifold  that  it  would  seem,  even  if 
only  from  the  conventional  standpoint,  wrong  to  allow 
a  child  to  quit  school  in  total  ignorance  of  this  wonder- 
ful mathematical  tool. 

Courses  in  commercial  arithmetic  given  in  many 
business  colleges  attempt  to  approximate  actual 
modern  business  processes.  The  elementary  school 
might  profitably  follow  their  example.  A  knowledge 
of  the  proper  way  of  making  out  checks,  promissory 
notes,  bills,  receipts,  etc.,  is  a  useful  asset  for  the 
ordinary  man  or  woman.  There  is  absolutely  as  little 
excuse  for  the  school  teaching  such  forms  in  an  anti- 
quated way  as  there  was  for  the  "up-country"  Penn- 
sylvania farmer  to  continue  voting,  until  a  very  recent 
date,  for  Andrew  Jackson  as  president.  It  is  not  only 
easy  but  interesting  for  the  teacher  to  acquaint  her- 
self with  simple  modern  forms. 

It  is  hoped  that  the  above  discussion  will  not  con- 
vey an  impression  of  the  inutility  of  arithmetic.  Much 
of  the  arithmetic  taught  in  our  schools  today  has  really 
practical  value,  although  probably  the  greater  part 
has  not.  It  is  important  therefore  that  the  teacher 
should  appreciate  this  distinction  and  although  she 
is,  as  a  rule,  required  to  teach  the  letter  of  the  sylla- 
bus, she  should  endeavor  in  every  way  possible  to  em- 
phasize the  practical  applications  of  her  teaching, 
realizing  the  fact  that  it  is  only  in  this  way  that  she 
can  give  life  to  a  subject  frequently  inanimately  dull. 
Again,  to  the  extent  that  every  teacher  should  aspire 
to  be  also  an  educator,  she  must  have  a  critical  atti- 
tude toward  courses  of  study  in  arithmetic,  especially 


ARITHMETIC  165 

toward  those  topics  which,  once  utilitarian,  are  tradi- 
tionally retained — static  inertia  being  the  most  tremen- 
dous force  in  education — on  account  of  their  supposed 
disciplinary  value.  By  formal  and  informal  discus- 
sion, written  and  oral,  the  earnest  teacher  may  help 
considerably  in  the  rationalizing  of  the  elementary 
course  in  arithmetic. 

The  Propaedeutic  Value  of  Arithmetic, — So  far  as 
preparation  for  higher  educational  work  is  concerned, 
arithmetic  obviously  has  considerable  value.  The 
mathematics  form  a  chain,  whose  initial  and  most  im- 
portant link  is  arithmetic.  Equal  importance,  how- 
ever, from  this  point  of  view,  does  not  attach  to  all 
parts  of  the  elementary  course.  Much,  for  example, 
that  is  avowedly  utilitarian,  is  of  no  value  for  the  pur- 
suit of  algebra,  geometry,  or  the  higher  mathematics. 

The  portion  of  arithmetic  which  is  of  especial  im- 
portance as  propaBdeutie  for  higher  work,  relates  al- 
most entirely  to  abstract  operations  in  number.  To 
teach  these  adequately  from  the  viewpoint  of  this 
paragraph,  there  is  required  a  rather  different  method 
from  that  demanded  by  a  purely  utilitarian  aim. 
From  the  latter  standpoint,  quickness  and  accuracy 
in  the  manipulation  of  figures  is  the  desideratum. 
Such  facility,  though  not  undesirable,  is  by  no  means 
essential  to  arithmetic  as  the  beginning  of  a  complete 
mathematical  course.  Here  there  appears  much  more 
prominently  the  necessity  of  understanding  the  pro- 
cess ;  the  pupils  should  be  able  to  multiply  numbers  ac- 
curately if  you  will,  but  more  than  this  they  should 
have  a  clear  grasp  of  the  mathematical  nature  of  mul- 


166          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

tiplication.  Arithmetical  ideas  and  processes  are  to 
be  developed  and  taught  in  such  a  manner  that  a 
foundation  may  be  laid  for  mathematics  in  general. 

The  "How  and  the  Why."— The  above  discussion  of 
the  value  of  arithmetic  will  establish  a  viewpoint 
for  a  difficult  question  which  often  confronts  the 
teacher  of  elementary  arithmetic,  viz:  In  teaching 
this  or  that  topic,  shall  I  fully  explain  the  reason 
for  the  process — the  "why";  or  shall  I  be  content 
with  securing  proficiency  in  performing  the  opera- 
ation — the  "how"?  The  specific  aim  of  any  lesson — 
utilitarian  or  propaedeutic — will  exert  considerable  in- 
fluence on  the  answer  to  this  question.  Even  in  those 
cases,  however,  where  the  value  of  a  lesson  is  pre- 
dominantly utilitarian,  it  does  not  follow  that  the 
"why"  of  a  process  is  unnecessary.  We  must  not 
forget  the  importance  of  mental  organization  both  for 
the  apperceptive  grasp  and  for  the  usable  retention 
of  knowledge.  There  is,  as  a  rule,  no  better  set  of 
associations  to  secure  these  ends  than  those  mental 
connections  which  make  for  the  comprehension  of  a 
topic.  The  necessity  for  drill  and  repetition  is  in- 
versely as  the  strength  and  solidarity  of  such  con- 
nections. 

There  are,  however,  some  arithmetical  processes, 
the  demonstration  of  whose  correctness  is  too  abstruse 
for  the  elementary  pupil.  It  by  no  means  follows 
that  the  teaching  of  such  operations  should  be  de- 
ferred until  the  pupil  is  mature  enough  to  compre- 
hend the  reasons  for  them.  A  fourth  year  child,  for 
instance,  who  is  compelled  by  an  antiquated  course 


ARITHMETIC  167 

of  study  to  reduce  enormous  fractions,  should  be  priv- 
ileged to  employ  the  continuous  division  method  of 
finding  the  greatest  common  divisor.  The  attempt  to 
demonstrate  this  method  to  young  children  would 
be  a  pedagogical  absurdity.  The  vast  majority  of 
us  use  watches  with  absolute  innocence  of  their  mech- 
anism, so  the  old  sea  captain  with  no  training  in  the 
intricacies  of  electrical  science  steers  his  course  by  the 
magnetic  needle.  These  analogies  apply,  with  dimin- 
ished force  however,  to  arithmetic. 

We  may  perhaps  safely  generalize  to  this  extent: 
The  reason  for  an  arithmetical  process  should  always 
be  given  when  its  comprehension  is  well  within  the 
range  of  the  pupils'  minds.  It  will  then  help  him 
to  organize  his  knowledge  and  insure  retention  of 
the  process.  When,  however,  the  reason  for  an  opera- 
tion is  too  intricate  for  the  pupils'  grasp,  the  demon- 
stration should  be  omitted.  In  its  place  should  be 
given  proofs  of  the  correctness  of  the  result  so  as 
to  inspire  confidence  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils  as 
well  as  to  give  them  a  method  of  testing  the  accuracy 
of  their  work.  This  forms  a  kind  of  specific  demon- 
stration, which  should,  however,  be  carefully  distin- 
guished from  real  mathematical  demonstration. 

Conventional  and  Kational  Arithmetic. — A  distinc- 
tion, to  some  extent  resembling  that  between  arbitrary 
and  rational  spelling,  applies  to  arithmetic.  It  will 
be  discussed  here  briefly  so  as  to  fix  these  designa- 
tions in  the  mind  of  the  reader.  The  term  ' '  rational ' ' 
may  be  applied  to  those  parts  of  arithmetic  in  which 
reasons  for  processes  are  made  clear  to  the  pupils. 


168          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

That  twice  three  are  six,  for  example,  is  a  purely 
rational  process.  The  term  ' '  conventional ' '  is  applied 
to  such  a  fact  as  that  there  are  twelve  inches  in  a 
foot,  or  that  the  usual  rate  of  interest  is  six  per 
cent,  etc.  Many  arithmetical  operations  contain  both 
rational  and  conventional  elements,  e.  g.,  such  a  prob- 
lem as  ''Two  feet  are  how  many  inches?" 

The  general  principles  underlying  the  teaching  of 
rational  arithmetic  have  been  touched  on  above  and 
will  be  more  fully  discussed  later.  Practically  the 
same  psychological  considerations  as  were  found  ap- 
plicable to  the  teaching  of  arbitrary  spelling  also  ap- 
ply to  conventional  arithmetic.  The  intensity  of 
acquisition  derived  from  interesting  presentation  com- 
bined with  drill  must  supply  the  place  of  organized 
concatenations  of  reasoning.  Practical  applications 
of  the  knowledge  attained  will  constitute  an  important 
factor  of  the  fixing  process.  The  interesting  presen- 
tation will  naturally  take  the  form  largely  of  ob- 
jective work,  which  will  also  serve  the  purpose  of 
rendering  more  obvious  the  relation  of  the  knowledge 
to  the  living  interests  of  the  pupils.  Liquid  meas- 
ure, for  example,  demands  for  its  proper  teaching 
that  the  children  should  be  shown  the  actual  measures, 
gallon,  quart,  pint,  and  gill  and  should  also  be  given 
the  opportunity  of  using  them.  That  a  quart  equals 
two  pints  will  thus  become  not  a  merely  verbal  asso- 
ciation, but  a  real  perceptive  fact,  the  seeing  and 
handling  of  the  measures  adding  interest  and  at  least 
a  glimpse  of  utility. 

Verbal  methods  of  instruction  in  conventional  arith- 


ARITHMETIC  169 

metic  show  a  persistency  which  is  often  discouraging 
to  the  principal  who  also  happens  to  be  an  educator. 
Nothing  but  the  conscientious  application  of  thor- 
oughly understood  psychological  principles  will  ever 
eradicate  such  ineffective  teaching.  The  use  of  ob- 
jective methods  merely  in  obedience  to  orders  of  a 
superior  authority  is  well  nigh  hopeless.  Verbal 
methods  of  instruction  will,  however,  probably  en- 
dure at  least  as  long  as  term  examinations  test  only 
verbal  retention.  In  preparing  their  pupils  for  such 
examinations,  teachers  too  often  feel  that  the  time 
spent  in  objective  work  constitutes  a  roundabout 
method  of  securing  a  result,  more  easily  attained  by 
verbal  exercises.  They  often  fail  to  realize  that  the 
verbal  result  itself  is  most  surely  secured  by  the  in- 
tensity of  objective  presentation. 

Rational  Mathematics  an  Abstract  Science. — The  use 
of  objects  in  connection  with  rational  mathematics 
differs  considerably  from  its  employment  as  a  medium 
of  conventional  arithmetic.  The  concept  of  number 
is  essentially  abstract,  and  all  real  arithmetical  reason- 
ing involves  number  ideas  more  or  less  thoroughly 
divorced  from  the  concrete.  The  influence  of  Pes- 
talozzi  has  tended  to  obscure  this  undoubted  fact.  In 
developing  the  abstract  notion  of  number,  objects 
are  necessary  at  first.  A  wise  choice  of  varied  ob- 
jects assists  in  building  up  the  idea.  These  objects, 
however,  should  not  be  so  entertaining  and  striking 
as  to  distract  the  pupils'  attention  from  the  essen- 
tials of  the  number  concept.  Five  chocolate  cookies 
on  each  child's  desk,  for  instance,  just  before  the  noon 


170         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

recess,  would  be  an  unwise  material  equipment  for 
developing  the  number  five.  Little  sticks,  pebbles, 
bits  of  chalk,  etc.,  are  decidedly  more  advisable.  The 
use  of  any  objects  should  be  discontinued  as  soon  as 
the  teacher  feels  that  the  number  idea  is  sufficiently 
grasped.  One  argument  against  the  natural  and 
otherwise  innocent  use  of  the  fingers  in  counting  is 
that  nothing  short  of  amputation  constitutes  a  sure 
cure  for  the  habit. 

In  both  oral  and  written  work,  especially  the 
former,  mathematical  reasoning  is  apt  to  be  seriously 
impeded  by  an  insistence  on  constant  repetition  of 
concrete  denominations.  In  solving  such  a  problem, 
for  example,  as  "John  had  five  marbles  and  found 
eleven  more.  He  then  lost  eight.  How  many  were 
left?",  it  is  not  only  permissible  but  mathematically 
desirable  that  the  pupil  should  respond  in  some  such 
way  as  "Five  and  eleven  are  sixteen.  Sixteen  minus 
eight  are  eight.  He  had  eight  marbles  left."  The 
repetition  of  the  word  marbles  in  each  case  would  be 
unpedagogical  as  mathematical  training  and  stilted 
as  a  form  of  oral  expression.  In  written  work,  as 
in  written  language  in  general,  more  formality  may 
be  desired.  In  the  reasoning  that  precedes  the  writ- 
ten solution,  however,  the  denominations  may  gener- 
ally be  omitted. 

Self-Activity  in  Arithmetic. — The  need  of  self-activ- 
ity for  the  comprehension  of  arithmetic  and  mathe- 
matics in  general  is  perhaps  greater  than  it  was  found 
to  be  in  the  case  of  grammar.  "Teach  the  pupils 
to  think"  is  a  maxim  that  applies  with  especial  force 


ARITHMETIC  171 

to  arithmetic.  This  end  can  be  attained  only  by  a 
slow  but  sure  laying  of  foundations.  In  the  first 
place,  the  pupil  must  have  thorough  and  absolute 
knowledge  of  the  elementary  sums,  differences,  prod- 
ucts, and  quotients.  The  thought  processes  involved 
in  even  simple  problems  are  seriously  impeded  by 
any  uncertainty  regarding  these  fundamental  ele- 
ments. Initial  work  with  objects,  followed  by  drill, 
drill,  drill,  must  fix  these  factors,  although  self-ac- 
tivity is  necessarily  brought  into  play  in  their  com- 
prehension. As  a  boy,  the  author  sang  the  multi- 
plication table  day  after  day  in  concert  drills. 
Whether  pedagogically  sound  or  not,  he  has  never 
regretted  this  feature  of  his  schooling.  Promptness, 
as  well  as  accuracy  of  response  must  be  the  goal  of 
the  primary  teacher's  ambition.  So  important  is  the 
attainment  of  this  end  that  almost  any  moral  means 
are  justifiable.  Recently,  in  some  localities,  the  mul- 
tiplication table  has  been  greatly  simplified  by  omit- 
ting the  eleven  and  twelve  times  products.  This  is 
a  well  advised  reform,  although  it  necessitates  an 
apparently  longer  procedure  in  multiplication  and 
division  by  eleven  and  twelve.  This  longer  proced- 
ure, however,  applies  rather  to  the  space  required 
than  to  the  time  consumed  in  these  operations. 

Once  a  sure  grasp  of  the  elementary  results  is  se- 
cured, there  are  afforded  various  opportunities  for 
self-active  processes  demanded  by  the  uncertainty  of 
the  teacher's  ejective  knowledge,  as  well  as  by  the 
necessity  of  mental  organization.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  teacher's  solution  of  a  problem  will  differ 


172         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

at  least  in  speed  and  emphasis  from  that  of  the  pu- 
pils. She  may  explain  a  problem  never  so  well  and 
still  proceed  too  fast  for  some  of  the  pupils,  too 
slowly  for  others.  Or  she  may  lay  the  emphasis  on 
elements  which  some  understand  thoroughly  and  omit 
it  from  elements  which  others  fail  to  comprehend. 
Of  course,  much  individual  teaching  will  at  times  be 
necessary,  but  the  wise  private  tutor  as  well  as  the 
teacher  of  fifty  pupils  must  realize  the  importance  of 
the  pupil  working  out  the  problems  himself.  There 
are  some  teachers  who  pride  themselves  on  their  abil- 
ity as  instructors  in  arithmetic,  whose  procedure  is 
fundamentally  unpedagogic.  In  the  event  of  a  class 
failure,  e.  g.,  to  solve  a  problem  which  they  were  sup- 
posedly prepared  for,  such  teachers  frequently  admin- 
ister a  scolding  mixed  with  a  little  sarcasm,  and  then 
fully  solve  the  problem  on  the  blackboard,  clearly  an- 
nouncing the  reason  for  each  separate  step.  To  this 
wasteful  process  they  give  the  name  explanation. 
When  it  is  finished,  they  turn  to  the  class,  generously 
offering  to  repeat  the  ' '  explanation "  if  any  point  is 
not  understood.  Of  course,  no  self-respecting  pupil 
could  make  such  a  request  without  abject  humilia- 
tion and  implied  criticism  of  the  teacher.  The  class 
politely  assumes  an  attitude  of  reverent  gratitude,  and 
the  teacher  pats  herself  on  the  back  complacently. 
Perchance,  the  same  problem  is  immediately  assigned 
with  a  mere  change  of  figures.  Nearly  all  the  pupils 
now  solve  it  correctly  and  the  teacher's  benediction 
closes  the  service ! 

The  essential  fault  of  the  above  method  is  seen  as 


ARITHMETIC  173 

soon  as  the  true  nature  of  explanation  as  a  form  of 
deductive  reasoning  is  understood,  and  when  it  is 
borne  in  mind  that  arithmetic  is  a  deductive  science. 
The  former  point  was  referred  to  in  Chapter  II. 
Real  explanation  involves  the  inclusion  of  the  fact 
to  be  explained  under  some  general  principle  or  law 
already  in  the  pupil's  mind.  The  detailed  solution 
of  a  problem,  as  described  in  the  preceding  para- 
graph, may  contain  practically  no  true  explanation 
at  all.  The  proper  course  for  the  teacher  whose  class 
has  thus  failed  is,  first  of  all,  to  determine  the  cause 
of  such  failure.  It  may  be  found  that  most  of  the 
pupils  have  failed  to  grasp  some  principle  involved. 
In  such  a  case,  explanation  must  await  the  develop- 
ment of  this  principle.  Simple  exercises,  in  which 
the  principle  stands  out  prominently,  should  then 
form  the  preparatory  stage  for  reattempting  the  so- 
lution of  the  problem.  Or  it  may  be  that  while  the 
necessary  principles  are  sufficiently  understood,  there 
is  a  failure  to  appreciate  the  particular  case  as  an 
application  of  the  principle.  In  such  an  event  the 
wise  teacher  will  find  it  advisable  to  give  the  class 
practice  in  a  simple  series  of  graded  applications  of 
the  principle,  much  of  the  work  being  oral. 

This  self-active  procedure  may  be  made  clearer  by 
an  illustration.  Suppose  the  class  is  required  to  as- 
certain how  many  yards  of  paper,  two  yards  wide, 
are  necessary  to  cover  a  wall  of  certain  dimensions. 
If  the  teacher  finds,  upon  examination  of  the  solu- 
tion, a  general  failure  to  grasp  the  principle  that 
the  length  of  a  rectangle  can  be  secured  by  dividing 


174         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

its  area  by  its  width,  she  will  proceed  to  develop  this 
principle  by  means  of  objective  illustration,  drawing 
upon  the  board  simple  rectangles,  five  inches  by  two, 
eight  by  three,  seven  by  two,  then  by  a  series  of  ques- 
tions leading  the  pupils  to  state  the  principle  them- 
selves. The  universal  application  of  the  principle 
may  then  be  stated  in  the  form  of  a  rule;  e.  g.,  area 
divided  by  width  equals  length.  Or  the  class  failure 
may  be  due,  not  to  ignorance  of  the  principle,  but 
to  failure  to  grasp  the  fact  that  the  paper  cut  in 
strips  actually  constitutes  one  long  rectangle,  two 
yards  wide.  This  can  be  led  up  to  by  similar  ob- 
jective illustrations,  a  series  of  simple  rectangles  of 
identical  width  and  length  being  drawn  upon  the 
board,  and  then  the  series  redrawn  as  a  continuous 
rectangle  with  vertical  lines  equally  dividing  it  into 
the  requisite  number  of  strips.  Two  or  three  lessons 
of  this  character,  first  oral,  and  gradually  increasing 
in  difficulty,  may  be  necessary  before  the  original 
problem  is  again  attempted.  Such  self-active  work 
may  seem  prodigal  of  time  to  the  ordinary  teacher, 
but  its  psychological  soundness  and  practical  results 
in  increased  pupil  efficiency  render  it  in  the  best 
sense  economical. 

Arithmetical  Knowledge  as  Power. — The  reforms  of 
modern  courses  render  it  increasingly  possible  to  em- 
ploy practical  applications  as  an  effective  means  of 
fixing  knowledge  of  arithmetic.  Whatever  the  pupil 
can  turn  to  some  useful  account  touches  his  living 
interests  and  thus  holds  his  attention.  Not  only  the 
process  itself,  but  everything  connected  with  it  ac- 


ARITHMETIC  175 

quires  a  firmer  hold  on  the  pupil's  mind.  The  au- 
thor can  never  forget  a  lesson  in  the  chemistry  of 
putrefaction  which  is  worthy  of  repetition  in  this  con- 
nection. The  teacher  had  described  Pasteur's  investi- 
gations proving  the  necessity  of  oxygen  to  the  life 
of  putrefactive  germs  and  the  application  of  this  dis- 
covery to  the  canning  of  meats  and  vegetables.  He 
explained  the  method  of  canning  and  urged  the  im- 
portance of  the  total  expulsion  of  air  before  sealing. 
When  this  expulsion  has  been  imperfect,  the  ends  of 
the  can  are  likely  to  bulge,  when  perfect,  they  are 
often  concave.  "Now,"  added  the  instructor,  "when 
your  mother  sends  you  for  a  can  of  tomatoes,  you 
know  what  kind  to  pick  out ! "  I  doubt  whether  any 
boy  of  that  class  has  ever  forgotten  the  principal 
facts  of  that  lesson.  The  possibility  of  practically  ap- 
plying arithmetical  knowledge  should  exert  a  constant 
influence  upon  the  teacher  in  her  selection  of  prob- 
lems. At  the  same  time,  correlation  may  often  be 
secured  with  other  curricular  subjects,  e.  g.,  the  num- 
ber of  days  Columbus  consumed  in  his  first  voyage 
and  the  distance  traveled  form  interesting  data  for  a 
problem  in  ascertaining  his  average  daily  distance.  A 
similar  average  may  be  obtained  for  a  modern  ocean 
liner  and  the  ratio  of  the  two  in  fraction  or  per- 
centage be  determined.  The  percentage  of  the  various 
ingredients  of  alcoholic  beverages  may  be  used  to  ef- 
fect a  similar  correlation  with  temperance  hygiene. 
The  teacher  could  profitably  record  in  a  note  book  a 
series  of  such  problems,  either  original  or  culled  from 
various  sources,  which  would  form  a  splendid  asset 


176  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

for  her  arithmetical  teaching.  In  addition,  problems 
involving  actual  measurements  of  school  room,  build- 
ing, and  yard  will  suggest  themselves  to  the  thought- 
ful teacher,  once  she  has  realized  the  all  important 
principle  of  knowledge  as  power  with  all  its  peda- 
gogical implications. 

The  Stage  of  Preparation. — The  discussion  of  the 
preceding  paragraph  has  a  valuable  application  to 
the  step  of  preparation.  There  is  perhaps  no  better 
way  of  securing  a  state  of  expectant  attention  than 
by  creating  in  the  mind  of  the  pupil  a  felt  need  for 
the  instruction.  In  some  educational  discussions,  this 
device  is  included  in  the  statement  of  the  aim.  How- 
ever considered,  it  is  of  supreme  importance.  The 
lesson  is  interestedly  awaited  and  the  pupils'  curios- 
ity is  aroused.  The  resultant  mental  attitude  is  ren- 
dered vitally  receptive,  as  apperceptive  systems  are 
vividly  formed,  lacking  only  the  completive  element 
which  is  to  be  supplied  by  the  coming  lesson. 

The  question  of  the  extent  of  the  knowledge  already 
possessed  by  the  pupil  is  as  important  for  instruction 
in  arithmetic  as  in  grammar.  What  the  teacher  has 
the  right  to  presuppose  must  be  borne  definitely  in 
mind.  If  certain  parts  of  this  previous  knowledge  are 
of  particular  importance  in  connection  with  the  new 
work,  these  parts  should  be  actively  recalled  so  that 
the  vividness  of  recency  may  add  its  influence  to  the 
ideas. 

Short  Cuts. — As  could  be  gathered  from  the  forego- 
ing discussion,  abbreviated  processes  of  work  in  arith- 
metic may  or  may  not  be  desirable.  If  the  aim  is  the 


ARITHMETIC  177 

comprehension  of  a  general  rule,  our  previous  psycho- 
logical considerations  will  have  proved  conclusively 
"The  more  haste  the  less  speed."  When,  however, 
the  aim  is  narrowly  utilitarian,  and  the  demonstration 
of  the  process  unessential  or  intricate,  "short  cut" 
methods  are  permissible.  Even  here  it  may  sometimes 
happen  that  the  teacher  can  ill  afford  to  dispense  with 
the  retentive  value  of  mental  organization.  In  teach- 
ing the  six  per  cent  method  of  computing  interest,  e. 
g., — ' '  Multiply  dollars  by  days,  divide  by  six,  point  off 
three  decimal  places, ' '  a  simple  algebraic  derivation  of 
the  rule  is  helpful.  So  in  multiplying  by  twenty-five 
— add  two  ciphers  and  divide  by  four.  The  latter 
rule  is  a  good  illustration  of  a  short  cut  method 
which  is  often  useful  on  the  occasions  where  rapid  men- 
tal calculation  is  demanded.  The  trouble  with  many 
so  called  "short  cut"  methods  is  that  they  add  one 
other  topic  to  an  already  overburdened  course.  They 
are  justifiable  only  on  a  strictly  utilitarian  basis. 

Arithmetical  Analysis. — The  designation  "Arithmet- 
ical Analysis"  is  often  narrowly  applied  to  a  rather 
formal  method  of  solving  problems  using  the  unit  as  a 
basis.  The  term  mental  arithmetic  was  frequently 
given  to  the  purely  mental  solution  of  such  problems. 
This  designation  was  not  clear  nor  descriptive — all 
mathematical  solutions  are  mental — and  it  has  grad- 
ually gone  out  of  use.  Together  with  the  obsolescence 
of  the  term  has  passed  also  its  vogue,  a  result  due,  as 
might  be  expected,  to  the  extremes  to  which  the  prac- 
tice had  gone.  Pupils  were  often  required  to  re-state 
after  a  single  hearing  a  complicated  problem  and  then 


178         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

solve  it  promptly  without  the  aid  of  any  written  work. 
The  believers  in  formal  discipline — and  their  name 
was  legion  some  decades  since — urged  as  justification 
for  such  exercises  training  of  attention,  memory,  and 
reasoning.  At  the  same  time,  it  was  held  that  they 
afforded  an  excellent  opportunity  for  training  in  pre- 
cision of  language.  These  claims  may  all  be  accepted 
as  true  but  in  a  sense  so  modified  from  that  in  the 
minds  of  the  original  champions  as  to  amount  to  an 
entirely  different  thing. 

Written  analysis  where  the  numbers  are  too  large 
for  purely  mental  computation,  and  oral  analysis  of 
simple  problems  form  excellent  means  of  mathematical 
training.  The  analysis,  however,  must  not  always 
base  itself  on  unity  as  one,  but  rather  on  that  unity 
which  amounts  to  common  measure  or  unit  of  compar- 
ison. When  the  numbers  to  be  compared  are,  e.  g., 
three  and  five,  one  becomes  the  natural  unit;  when, 
however,  the  numbers  are  nine  and  twenty-seven,  nine 
is  the  natural  unit.  The  old  ' t  mental  arithmetic ' '  did 
not  give  sufficient  attention  to  this  very  helpful  dis- 
tinction. 

There  is  but  little  doubt  that  arithmetical  analysis 
holds  its  place  in  the  modern  curriculum  on  account  of 
its  disciplinary  value.  To  the  extent  that  we  interpret 
this  as  the  building  up  of  ideas  of  relationship,  there 
can  be  no  quarrel  with  this  view.  Practically,  how- 
ever, the  actual  appeal  of  many  problems  to  the  puz- 
zle instinct  has  kept  up  the  pupils'  interest  in  such 
work,  while  the  so-called  "discipline  of  difficulties"  has 
supplied  the  strongest  argument  for  the  teacher. 


ARITHMETIC  179 

There  is  great  danger  of  allowing  such  disciplinary 
work  in  "pure"  arithmetic  to  go  to  an  extreme.  The 
adjective  "pure"  as  applied  to  mathematics  in  general 
too  often  signifies  a  kind  of  subject-matter  which,  so 
far  as  the  pupil  can  see,  has  no  application  to  any- 
thing. No  wonder  that  teachers  find  this  subject  so 
difficult  to  teach  and  that  so  many  pupils  fail.  Mathe- 
matical curiosity  per  se  does  exist,  but  it  is  compara- 
tively rare.  When  the  average  pupil  hears  that  two- 
thirds  of  the  lid  weighs  four-fifths  as  much  as  the  ket- 
tle, his  wildest  flight  of  imagination  fails  to  reveal  to 
him  a  situation  in  life  where  this  computation  would 
be  necessary,  and  like  the  naive  country  lawyer,  he  is 
disposed  to  say  '  *  I  don 't  have  to  prove  it.  I  admit  it. ' ' 

Kept  within  reasonable  limits,  and  given  real  utili- 
tarian applications,  arithmetical  analysis  is  a  valuable 
part  of  the  arithmetic  course.  It  represents  a  kind  of 
reasoning  which  must  frequently  be  employed  in  the 
solution  of  problems.  Its  value  stands  out  most  con- 
spicuously in  oral  exercises.  Used  in  written  work, 
the  teacher  should  demand  the  formality  character- 
istic of  written  work  in  general.  Conciseness  of  state- 
ment must  be  insisted  upon.  It  is  perhaps  sufficient 
to  refer  casually  to  the  fact  that,  so  far  as  training 
in  written  language  is  concerned,  there  are  many  sub- 
jects which  could  be  named  at  random  which  form 
much  more  felicitous  themes  than  arithmetical  analy- 
sis. 

Oral  Arithmetic. — By  oral  arithmetic,  I  mean  the  dis- 
pensing with  written  aids  in  the  solution  of  problems. 
The  pupil  hears  the  problem  and  thinks  out  the  solu- 


180         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

tion  which  he  expresses  or  recites  orally.  This  has 
the  advantages  and  disadvantages  of  all  oral  work. 
If  handled  properly,  the  former  outweigh  the  latter. 
One  peculiar  advantage  of  oral  arithmetic  consists  in 
the  fact  that  the  teacher  is  restricted  to  the  use  of 
small  numbers,  and  thus  the  attention  of  the  pupil 
is  concentrated  upon  the  principle  involved.  There  is 
probably  entirely  too  little  oral  recitation  of  arith- 
metic in  our  schools  today.  Although  the  analogy  is 
not  thorough-going,  oral  arithmetic  has  about  the  same 
relation  to  written  arithmetic  that  oral  language  has 
to  written  language.  Much  arithmetical  work  can 
profitably  be  taken  up  orally  at  first.  The  symbolism 
of  mathematics  is  however  much  more  abstract  than 
that  of  ordinary  language,  so  that  a  great  deal  more 
objective  work  is  necessary.  Beyond  possibly  the  first 
four  or  five  numbers,  the  child  has  no  definite  mathe- 
matical vocabulary  whatever.  The  teacher  therefore 
cannot  rest  satisfied  with  the  association  between  the 
visual  and  oral  symbols  as  in  the  case  of  the  simple 
sight  words  of  primary  reading. 

What  is  sometimes  called  rapid  arithmetic  has  its 
place  in  the  curriculum  on  account  of  its  utilitarian 
value.  The  vocational  man  must  not  only  have  ac- 
curate knowledge  of  processes  like  three-eighths  of 
forty  but  he  should  be  able  to  give  an  answer  promptly. 
Requiring  rapid  answers  to  simple  problems  in  the 
class  room  is  a  means  of  securing  such  promptness. 
This  result  is  not  to  be  accounted  for  by  the  myster- 
ious training  of  any  mental  faculty,  but  is  due  to  the 
drill  furnished  by  such  exercises,  and  the  creation 


ARITHMETIC  181 

of  an  ideal  of  prompt,  attentive  work,  aroused  by  the 
teacher's  frequent  demand  for  quick  responses.  It  is 
this  latter  consideration  which  is  by  far  the  most  im- 
portant. This  psychological  analysis  may  seem  pe- 
dantic to  the  ordinary  reader,  but  it  is  really  a  vital 
factor  of  the  teacher's  attitude  toward  her  work.  The 
teacher  must  be  conscious  of  the  mental  processes  of 
her  pupils,  if  she  hopes  to  aid  their  development. 

Specific  Method, — As  it  was  found  desirable  to  con- 
clude the  chapter  on  grammar  with  specific  applica- 
tions of  the  general  principles  discussed,  so  the  same 
plan  will  be  followed  in  this  chapter.  The  reader  will 
pardon  my  repetition  of  the  caution  previously  given. 
A  suggested  method  is  not  like  a  paper  pattern  which 
a  dressmaker  uses  in  cutting  out  a  dress.  It  is  rather 
an  inspiration  to  the  teacher  to  have  a  definite  aim 
and  to  think  out  carefully  the  means  best  adapted  to 
its  attainment.  No  two  real  teachers  will  use  identical 
methods,  nor  will  the  same  teacher  use  the  same 
method  at  all  times. 

The  Teaching  of  Square  Measure. — In  the  teaching  of 
square  measure,  the  aim  is  absolutely  utilitarian,  so 
that  from  the  very  beginning  its  practical  applications 
should  stand  out  clearly.  It  is  conventional  only  in 
so  far  as  it  is  derived  from  long  measure,  its  relation 
to  which  however, — with  the  exception  of  the  acre — 
is  purely  rational.  Long  measure  is  one  of  the  pre- 
suppositions of  the  teaching  as  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
fundamental  operations,  including  some  work  in  frac- 
tions. 

The  stage  of  preparation  will  consist  largely  of 


182          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

creating  an  attitude  of  expectant  attention  based  on  the 
need  for  the  knowledge.  It  will  also  include  a  review 
of  long  measure  with  especial  reference  to  units  of 
measurement,  i.  e.,  the  comparison  of  lengths,  first  by 
the  pupils  guessing  or  estimating  the  result,  and  then 
verifying  by  the  use  of  the  unit  yard,  foot,  or  inch. 
The  name  unit  and  its  use  especially  for  comparison 
should  be  brought  out  emphatically.  With  this  con- 
cept clearly  in  mind  the  pupil  is  ready  for  the  teach- 
ing of  square  measure,  which  should  for  the  first  few 
lessons  not  go  further  than  the  unit  square  yard. 

Two  pieces  of  board,  one  seven  inches  by  four  inches 
and  the  other  thirteen  by  two  might  be  shown  to  the 
class  and  the  question  asked  which  would  require  more 
paint  to  cover  its  surface  (The  word  "surface"  has 
probably  been  learned  in  connection  with  geography. 
Its  importance  in  this  connection  might  justify  the 
teacher  in  making  it  the  theme  of  a  preparatory  lan- 
guage lesson  as  was  suggested  in  the  last  chapter  in 
the  case  of  the  word  "passive").  The  pupils  will 
soon  see,  if  properly  questioned,  the  necessity  for  a 
unit  of  comparison,  and  they  are  now  ready  for  the 
presentation  of  these  units. 

The  convenience  of  the  square  as  a  unit  can  be  de- 
veloped by  the  teacher  showing  the  difficulties  attend- 
ing the  use  of  circle,  triangle,  or  other  figures.  It  then 
remains  to  apply  the  linear  units  to  the  sides  of  the 
square  inch,  square  foot,  and  square  yard.  Dividing 
the  two  rectangles  above  mentioned  by  horizontal  and 
vertical  lines  upon  the  blackboard  will  form  an  ex- 
cellent objective  presentation  of  the  unit  square  inch 


ARITHMETIC  183 

and  also  of  its  use  in  surface  measurements.  Similarly 
for  the  square  foot  and  square  yard,  the  pupils  easily 
being  led  to  derive  the  numbers  144:  and  0  by  means  of 
dividing  a  square  foot  into  square  inches,  and  a  square 
yard  into  square  feet. 

The  applications  of  square  measure  are  too  obvious 
to  require  detailed  mention  here.  The  utilitarian 
value  which  often  attaches  to  the  ability  to  estimate  a 
length  or  distance  is  less  important  in  the  case  of 
square  measure.  We  are  not  so  frequently  called 
upon  to  estimate  surfaces  as  lengths,  and  even  when  we 
do  so,  we  generally  base  our  estimates  upon  the  linear 
dimensions.  An  exception  is  furnished  by  the  unit 
acre  especially  in  rural  communities.  Here  the  utili- 
tarian and  conventional  knowledge  of  this  unit  may 
assume  considerable  importance. 

Decimal  Fractions. — The  teaching  of  tenths,  hun- 
dredths,  etc.,  in  decimal  fraction  form,  presupposes  the 
comprehension  of  the  ordinary  fraction,  as  well  as 
knowledge  of  our  system  of  integral  decimal  notation. 
Besides  this,  it  will  be  found,  in  the  United  States  at 
least,  that  acquaintance  with  our  money  system,  read- 
ing and  writing  such  amounts  as  $22.58,  e.  g.,  will  form 
a  useful  presupposition.  The  latter  case  is  one  of  the 
few  instances  where  a  definitely  utilitarian  part  of 
arithmetic  is  taught  because  of  its  great  practical  value 
before  the  pupils  are  old  enough  to  understand  its 
theory.  The  aim  of  all  the  work  in  decimal  fractions 
is  obviously  utilitarian. 

Of  the  above  presuppositions,  the  decimal  character 
of  our  integral  notation  is  the  most  important.  This 


184         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

should  be  an  emphatic  part  of  the  stage  of  prepara- 
tion, the  pupils'  attention  being  directed  to  the  rela- 
tion of  units  to  tens,  tens  to  hundreds,  etc.,  as  well  as 
to  the  relation  as  first  taught,  i.  e.,  tens,  hundreds,  etc., 
merely  as  multiples  of  the  lower  place  values.  This 
relationship  can  be  drawn  from  the  class  readily. 
They  know  that  100,  for  example,  is  10  times  10 ;  their 
work  in  ordinary  fractions  will  have  been  sufficient 
to  make  them  see  that  conversely  10  is  one  tenth  of 
100,  and  so  with  the  higher  notations.  The  aim  of 
this  part  of  the  teaching  is  to  have  the  pupils  clearly 
grasp  the  fact  that  each  number  represents  a  value 
ten  times  as  great  as  its  right  hand  neighbor,  and  one 
tenth  as  great  as  its  left  hand  neighbor.  Kef erence  to 
their  knowledge  of  United  States  money  notation  may 
now  be  made  and  they  can  see  the  application  of  the 
above  to  an  amount  like  $875  where  the  unit  is  one 
dollar.  Then  write  upon  the  blackboard  $875.57. 
They  can  read  this  and  now  are  in  a  position  to  apply 
the  theory  of  decimal  place  value  to  the  right  of  the 
decimal  point,  a  point  the  significance  of  whose  name 
will  have  been  explained  in  connection  with  integral 
place  value,  and  the  placing  of  which  will  have  been 
insisted  on  in  all  their  exercises  in  money  notation. 
The  pupils  will  readily  see  that  the  first  place  to  the 
right  of  the  point  represents  dimes  or  tenths  of  dol- 
lars, while  the  next  place  represents  cents  or  tenths 
of  dimes.  Tenths  of  dimes  can  readily  be  shown  to  be 
hundredths  of  dollars.  Before  going  on  to  three  or 
more  decimal  places,  it  would  be  a  good  plan  to  give 
considerable  varied  drill  in  reading  and  writing  deci- 


ARITHMETIC  185 

mals  of  two  places  where  other  units  than  dollars  are 
used.  This  is  particularly  important  when  we  recall 
the  manner  of  concept  formation.  Practically  all  the 
child 's  perceptive  experience  has  connected  the  decimal 
point  with  money  notation.  It  becomes  necessary 
therefore  to  remove  this  element  from  the  connotation 
leaving  only  the  fractional  idea.  Soon  the  two  place 
idea  must  also  give  way  to  one,  three,  four,  or  more 
decimal  places.  This  step  is  facilitated  by  the  first 
part  of  the  preparatory  work  in  integral  notation,  the 
only  addition  required  being  the  grasp  of  one  tenth 
of  a  tenth  as  a  hundredth,  one  tenth  of  a  hundredth 
as  a  thousandth,  etc.  This  point  can  be  made  clear  by 
performing  the  actual  operations  with  fractions. 
These  practical  operations  also  serve  to  explain  the  ne- 
cessity of  placing  the  decimal  points  directly  under 
each  other  in  addition  and  subtraction,  and  of  adding 
the  places  for  multiplication  and  subtracting  for  divi- 
sion. These  fundamental  operations  with  decimals 
furnish  an  excellent  illustration  of  the  * '  why ' '  helping 
to  fix  the  "how."  Nothing  now  remains  but  drill  in 
utilitarian  problems  to  fix  the  knowledge.  The  econ- 
omy of  decimal  fraction  notation  should  be  emphasized 
for  the  class  by  having  one  set  of  pupils  perform  an 
operation  like  75.238  times  .37  in  the  fractional  way 
while  the  remainder  of  the  class  perform  it  by  the  use 
of  decimals. 

Division  of  Fractions. — The  teaching  of  division  of 
fractions  will  be  considered  because  it  presents  a  nice 
question  for  the  teacher  to  decide,  and  shows  the  im- 
portance of  a  clearly  defined  aim  in  education.  From 


186         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

a  narrow  utilitarian  standpoint,  it  might  seem  suffi- 
cient merely  to  tell  the  pupils  that  they  shall  invert 
the  divisor  and  proceed  as  in  mutiplication.  Novel  or 
striking  presentation  followed  by  a  large  amount  of 
drill  would  then  probably  suffice  to  fix  the  important 
point,  viz.,  inversion  of  the  divisor.  The  author  has  a 
distinct  recollection  of  one  teacher  who  fixed  the  pro- 
cess for  a  class  of  boys  by  telling  them  that  division  of 
fractions  was  something  like  a  fight, ' '  You  hit  the  other 
fellow  below  the  belt  and  double  him  up  ! "  What  this 
presentation  lacked  in  elegance  it  made  up  in  emphasis. 
Emotional  intensity  of  impression  rendered  one  hear- 
ing of  Romeo 's  voice  sufficient  for  Juliet 's  recognition ; 
and  the  same  influence,  though  less  potently  employed, 
proved  efficacious  for  this  arithmetic  class.  At  any 
rate,  the  teacher,  either  from  thoughtfulness  or 
thoughtlessness — I  really  do  not  know  which — avoided 
any  attempt  at  demonstration  of  the  reason  for  in- 
verting the  divisor. 

As  soon  as  either  the  propaedeutic  or  disciplinary 
aim  of  arithmetic  attains  prominence  in  the  mind  of 
syllabus  maker  or  teacher,  the  teaching  of  division  of 
fractions  assumes  a  very  different  aspect.  Proficiency 
in  performing  the  operation  now  becomes  secondary  to 
comprehension  of  the  underlying  reasons  of  the  pro- 
cess. The  method  of  teaching  then  required  will  have 
a  vital  bearing  upon  the  place  or  grade  in  which  the 
subject  shall  be  taught,  as  far  greater  intellectual  ma- 
turity is  required  to  demonstrate  the  process  than 
merely  to  use  it.  Problems  involving  division  of  frac- 
tions can  readily  be  deferred  until  pupils  are  old 


ARITHMETIC  187 

enough  to  comprehend  the  demonstration,  if  the  latter 
method  is  to  be  employed. 

The  presuppositions  here  are  obviously  a  knowledge 
of  the  fundamental  integral  operations  of  fractions  and 
of  their  multiplication.  It  would  be  a  good  plan  to 
emphasize  that  aspect  of  division  sometimes  called  par- 
tition, and  considerable  oral  drill  might  be  given  in 
construing  such  problems  as  "eight  divided  by  two" 
as  ' '  how  many  two 's  in  eight  ? ' '  This  point  of  attack 
constitutes  the  easiest  way  of  approaching  fractional 
divisors.  The  pupils  can  then  be  led  to  grasp  the 
solution  of  a  simple  problem  like  "eight  divided  by 
one-half,"  i.  e.,  "how  many  halves  in  eight?"  Self- 
activity  is  the  only  rational  method  here.  The  prep- 
aration with  integral  division  will  enable  the  pupils 
to  solve  readily  problems  like  the  above  where  the 
dividend  is  an  integer  and  the  divisor  a  simple 
fraction  with  unity  for  numerator.  Objective  helps 
will  serve  to  vivify  the  instruction.  The  next  step 
should  not  be  taken  until  this  kind  of  problem  is 
thoroughly  understood  by  the  entire  class.  When 
this  has  been  accomplished  and  the  pupils  appreciate 
that  the  process  actually  consists  of  multiplying  the 
dividend  by  the  denominator  of  the  divisor,  they  are 
ready  to  proceed  to  simple  divisions  with  numerators 
greater  than  unity,  for  a  while,  however,  not  going 
beyond  the  number  six.  They  can  now  be  led  to  grasp 
the  fact  that  if  one-third  is  contained  twelve  times  in 
four,  two-thirds  will  be  contained  but  half  as  many 
times.  Making  haste  slowly  and  at  times  objectively, 
they  can  be  led  to  formulate  for  themselves  the  rule 


188  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

that  they  multiply  by  the  denominator  and  divide  by 
the  numerator,  and  will  readily  see  that  this  amounts 
to  inverting  the  fraction  and  proceeding  as  in  multi- 
plication. When  and  only  when  this  is  fully  compre- 
hended is  the  teacher  justified  in  permitting  such  writ- 
ten solutions  as  8  -=-  %  =  8  x  %.  The  transition  to 
fractional  dividends  can  best  be  made  as  an  applica- 
tion of  the  rule  already  formulated.  The  conscien- 
tious teaching  of  this  subject  as  just  indicated  neces- 
sitates a  grasp  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  of  a  value 
of  arithmetic  other  than  utilitarian.  Otherwise  the 
path  of  least  resistance  will  naturally  lead  her  to  the 
mere  telling  of  the  "how"  of  the  process,  depending 
for  the  fixing  upon  drill. 

Elementary  Mensuration. — Most  courses  in  arith- 
metic include  some  practical  applications  of  geometry, 
generally  called  mensuration.  Some  of  this  work  on 
account  of  its  obvious  simplicity  and  utilitarian  value 
is  taught  early  in  the  elementary  course,  while  much 
is  left  for  the  seventh  and  eighth  school  years.  The 
tendency  of  recent ' '  downward ' '  revisions  of  arithme- 
tic courses  has  been  to  eliminate  everything  from  men- 
suration which  could  not  plainly  be  justified  by  its 
practical  application  to  the  needs  of  after  life.  This 
amounts  to  a  tacit  disregard  of  the  propa3cleutic  value 
of  the  subject,  a  value  moreover  which  was  scarcely 
justifiable  when  we  consider  the  extent  to  which  the 
charm  of  novelty  in  taking  up  a  brand  new  subject  is 
vitiated.  The  reform  in  mensuration  courses  has  its 
plain  lesson  for  the  teacher,  who  should  make  the  work 
just  as  concrete  and  practical  as  she  possibly  can, 


ARITHMETIC  189 

Demonstration  of  such  rules  as  finding  area  of  rect- 
angles and  triangles  and  volume  of  prisms  suggests 
itself  as  a  good  method  of  fixing  the  processes  by  means 
of  rational  mental  organization.  In  the  case  of  the 
circle,  cylinder,  cone,  and  sphere  the  elementary  school 
pupil  may  be  interested  in  ' '  approximate ' '  demonstra- 
tion, but  must  take  the  rules  as  pedagogic  dogmas,  the 
real  proof  of  which  will  be  forthcoming  in  geometry, 
an  interesting  science  which  he  will  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  studying  in  the  high  school.  So  with  the 
process  of  square  root  and  the  relationship  of  the 
sides  of  the  right  triangle.  Confidence  in  the  cor- 
rectness of  these  processes  based  upon  proof  where  pos- 
sible, e.  g.,  in  square  root,  or  upon  tentative  inductions, 
e.  g.,  in  the  right  triangle,  must  take  the  place  of  rigid 
demonstration. 

Mensuration  is  primarily  an  objective  study  and  the 
objects  should  be  practically  always  in  evidence  in  the 
teaching.  So  in  the  various  applications  of  the  rules, 
abstractness  must  give  way  to  concrete  work  in  the 
room,  building,  yard,  and  home.  How  many  gallons 
of  water  are  contained  in  that  particular  tank  on  the 
roof  of  the  building  opposite?  Let  the  pupils  get  the 
dimensions  themselves  if  practicable,  or  at  least  find 
out  what  they  are  from  some  one  who  knows.  One  ex- 
ception to  the  concreteness  of  the  work  may  be  men- 
tioned. It  will  be  recalled  that  in  discussing  the  ab- 
stract nature  of  real  mathematical  thinking,  objec- 
tion was  made  to  the  constant  repetition  of  denomi- 
nations as  impeding  thought  processes.  This  objection 
applies  to  the  abstract  number  work  of  mensuration 


190  INSTRUCTION   IN    THE   GRADES 

as  well.  For  example,  teachers  are  divided  in  opinion 
in  regard  to  the  method  of  stating  the  facts  in  com- 
puting area  from  length  and  width.  Some  would  re- 
quire the  pupils  to  say,  e.  g.,  8  sq.  ft.  x  2  =  16  sq.  ft. ; 
others  favor  the  rather  irrational  procedure  of  8  ft.  x 
2  ft.  =  16  sq.  ft.  The  former  is  certainly  the  better 
plan  in  the  beginning  as  in  the  teaching  of  square 
measure.  The  best  mathematical  plan  perhaps  is 
merely  to  require  the  pupils  to  remember  that  the  di- 
mensions must  be  of  the  same  denomination,  feet  by 
feet,  inches  by  inches,  etc.,  and  then  to  have  the  entire 
process  abstract  until  the  product  is  determined,  thus 
in  the  above  problem  8  x  2  =  16  sq.  ft.  Similarly 
16  -f-  2  =  8  ft.  This  constitutes  real  mathematical 
thinking  and  there  is  no  good  pedagogical  reason  to 
substitute  for  it  any  troublesome  circumlocutions. 


CHAPTER  X 
GEOGRAPHY 

Nature  of  Geography. — Geography  has  been  an  im- 
portant subject  in  the  educational  systems  of  various 
peoples  in  all  ages.  From  the  earliest  times  the  habi- 
tat of  human  beings  has  been  made  a  subject  of  scru- 
tiny and  hypothesis.  A  knowledge  of  his  own  and 
near-by  localities  was  necessary  to  the  most  primitive 
savage.  Even  lower  animals  may  be  said  to  possess 
some  sort  of  geographic  instinct  and  knowledge.  For 
many  of  them  the  sense  of  smell  furnishes  the  observa- 
tion and  memory  data,  which  humans  derive  mainly 
through  sight. 

Geography,  in  its  modern  development,  is  a  mixed 
science.  It  presupposes  or  includes  in  its  own  elemen- 
tary treatment  various  other  sciences,  such  as  mathe- 
matics, history,  politics,  zoology,  botany,  chemistry, 
physics,  and  geology.  This  inelusiveness  and  wide 
range  of  geography  lead  us  to  make  four  divisions 
of  the  science,  called  respectively  mathematical,  phys- 
ical, commercial  and  political  geography.  These  four 
terms  are  perhaps  sufficiently  descriptive  without  fur- 
ther explanation. 

Utilitarian  Value  of  Geography. — As  indicated  in  the 
above  paragraph,  geography  has  a  considerable  utili- 

191 


192         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

tarian  value.  "This  is  the  earth  upon  which  we  live" 
was  the  first  sentence  of  a  text-book  which  the  author 
studied  as  a  boy ;  and  live  upon  it  the  human  race 
probably  will  for  many  ages  to  come.  It  behooves  us 
therefore  to  become  as  intimately  acquainted  with  our 
earthly  home  as  may  be  necessary.  Finding  one 's  way 
easily  to  a  desired  destination  is  an  important  accom- 
plishment and  one  that  must  be  learned.  Geographi- 
cal knowledge  is  essential  to  the  attainment  of  this  pro- 
ficiency, whether  it  be  exemplified  in  a  primitive  locali- 
zation or  orientation  in  a  wilderness  through  the  help 
of  the  stars ;  or  finding  one 's  way  to  the  Victoria  Sta- 
tion in  London  and  taking  the  proper  train  for  Dover. 
So  far  as  this  kind  of  geographical  knowledge  is  con- 
cerned, it  is  obvious  that  localities  of  various  parts 
of  the  world  are  not  of  equal  importance.  Knowledge 
of  the  home  town  or  village,  the  neighboring  counties, 
the  nearby  states,  the  nation,  are,  in  just  this  order, 
valuable  to  the  American  boy  or  girl.  The  more  re- 
mote the  place,  the  less  justification  for  detailed  study, 
so  far  as  this  narrow  utilitarian  aspect  is  concerned. 
The  exact  trend  of  the  Himalayas  or  the  states  drained 
by  the  Congo  are  almost  negligible  from  this  point  of 
view.  Specific  geographic  study  is  often  a  necessary 
preliminary  or  accompaniment  of  extensive  travel. 
This  must  await  the  individual  need.  The  schooling 
of  the  average  boy  cannot  definitely  take  into  con- 
sideration the  probability  of  foreign  itineraries,  at 
least  not  to  the  extent  of  using  Baedeker  as  a  text- 
book! 

There  are,  of  course,  other  utilitarian  aspects  of 


GEOGRAPHY  193 

geography  besides  locality  knowledge.  Usually  the 
most  important  consideration  is  not  how  to  get  to  a 
place,  but  what  place  to  get  to.  It  is  difficult  here 
as  everywhere  to  make  a  distinction  between  utilitarian 
and  happiness  values.  We  may  say,  however,  that  a 
man's  choice  of  a  locality  on  the  basis  of  its  produc- 
tions, inhabitants,  or  occupations  with  a  view  to  a 
profitable  outcome  illustrates  a  strictly  utilitarian 
value  of  the  study.  The  tremendous  commercial  com- 
petition of  the  nations  in  modern  times  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  geographical  knowledge  along  indus- 
trial lines  far  beyond  the  narrow  study  of  one's  own 
locality. 

Happiness  Value. — As  indicated  in  the  above  para- 
graph and  in  Chapter  II.,  the  distinction  between  hap- 
piness and  utility  is  difficult  to  draw.  An  illustration 
would  perhaps  be  more  to  the  point  than  any  academic 
splitting  of  hairs.  If  a  man  goes  to  Munich  because 
he  knows  that  as  a  toy  manufacturer  he  can  get  help- 
ful ideas  in  that  city,  his  geographical  knowledge  has 
become  of  utilitarian  value.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he 
travels  to  the  same  place  because  of  his  fondness  for 
art  or  music,  his  knowledge  exhibits  its  happiness 
value,  a  value  which  the  teacher  can  ill  afford  to  neg- 
lect. To  arouse  an  interest  in  the  world  and  its 
people  thus  creating  a  desire  for  travel  and  some 
ability  to  appreciate  what  one  sees  while  traveling 
becomes  a  highly  important  part  of  the  geography 
teacher's  work.  She  will  be  the  better  equipped  to 
accomplish  this  end  the  more  extensive  have  been  her 
own  travels  and  geographical  reading,  the  inspiration 


194         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

of  the  former,  however,  far  outweighing  the  assistance 
of  the  latter. 

Conventional  Value. — It  is  obvious  that  a  consider- 
able conventional  value  attaches  to  geography,  which 
like  the  utilitarian  value,  varies  inversely  as  the  dis- 
tance. Surely  a  child  must  be  expected  to  know  the 
principal  streets,  buildings,  industries,  etc.,  of  his  own 
city.  Too  often,  however,  visitors  from  distant  parts 
first  acquaint  natives  with  their  own  interesting  en- 
vironment. The  conventional  value  of  knowledge  of 
remote  localities  is  largely  proportional  to  their  his- 
torical or  literary  significance  or  striking  character- 
istics. Palestine,  the  Isle  of  Man,  St.  Helena,  the  Coli- 
seum, Niagara  Falls,  Vesuvius  illustrate  bits  of  geo- 
graphical knowledge  which  one  must  possess  to  escape 
the  ignominy  of  being  regarded  as  an  ignoramus.  So 
far  as  present  day  events  are  concerned,  the  modern 
newspaper,  with  its  wealth  of  illustration  and  maps, 
has  relieved  the  school  of  some  of  its  task.  The  teacher 
must  ever  bear  in  mind,  however,  the  conventional  im- 
portance attaching  so  strongly  to  geographical  events 
near  in  place  and  time. 

Propaedeutic  Value. — The  nature  of  geography  as  a 
mixed  science  furnishes  a  foundation  on  which  the 
science  work  of  secondary  education  may  rest.  Par- 
ticularly geology  and  physics  find  a  large  field  in  the 
elementary  course  in  geography.  Similiarly  the  in- 
dustrial and  commercial  aspects  of  the  work  prepare 
the  way  for  the  more  intensive  courses  in  commercial 
geography  now  being  given  in  many  of  our  high 
schools.  The  scientific  implications  of  geography  of- 


GEOGRAPHY  195 

fer  frequent  opportunities  for  the  teacher  to  remind 
the  pupils  that  this  or  that  fact  will  be  more  fully 
elucidated  when  they  get  to  the  higher  schools  under 
botany  or  chemistry  or  astronomy,  etc.  Such  re- 
minders accompanying  interesting  experimental  or 
other  objective  work  may  easily  become  the  determin- 
ing influence  in  deciding  for  a  child  that  he  continue 
into  the  high  school  instead  of  going  to  work.  Geog- 
raphy, in  its  propaedeutic  aspect,  thus  becomes  a  large 
inductive  field  which  will  form  an  apperceptive  basis 
for  the  generalizations  of  scientific  work  in  secondary 
education. 

Moral  Value. — The  Herbartians  who  scrutinize  every 
subject  with  a  view  of  determining  some  moral  aspect 
dwell  with  considerable  emphasis  upon  the  value  of 
geography.  There  is  much  truth  in  their  contention 
that  geography  properly  taught  has  considerable  moral 
value.  It  is  however  only  one  of  the  several  values 
here  discussed  and  by  no  means  overshadows  the 
others.  The  inter-dependence  of  mankind,  the  need  of 
one  for  the  other,  is  an  idea  of  supreme  moral  im- 
portance. The  grasp  of  mankind  as  one  large  family, 
all  working  together  for  the  attainment  of  a  better 
material  and  spiritual  world,  gives  a  moral  viewpoint 
enabling  one  to  understand  the  deepest  philosophical 
and  religious  truths  of  the  ages.  Rich  opportunity  is 
afforded  the  teacher  to  lift  her  pupils  from  their 
natural  egoism  up  toward  a  noble  altruism.  The  vivid 
picturing  or  describing  of  coal  miners  risking  their 
lives  for  our  comfort,  of  fishermen  near  the  treacherous 
banks,  stokers  deep  down  in  the  ocean  freight  ship, 


196         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

must,  if  properly  presented,  awaken  a  responsive  thrill 
of  gratitude.  Such  teaching  warms  the  very  heart. 
From  this  point  of  view,  a  copy  of  Millet's  famous 
Angelus  or  The  Man  with  the  Hoe  is  far  more 
than  an  artistic  wall  decoration.  It  is  objective  geog- 
raphy, stressing,  it  is  true,  the  emotional  and  moral 
sides  of  the  occupation  of  agriculture.  The  obverse 
side  of  the  consideration  of  what  the  world  is  doing 
for  us  becomes  the  consideration  of  what  we  can  do 
for  the  world,  thus  bringing  out  the  need  for  active 
personal  industry.  It  is  said  that  ex-president  Roose- 
velt always  thanks  the  engineer  who  guides  the  loco- 
motive of  his  train.  Such  thanks  should  always  be  felt 
even  when  not  expressed.  The  mutuality  of  commer- 
cial relations  has  an  important  moral  bearing.  The 
storekeeper  who  displays  his  wares  in  the  shop  win- 
dow primarily  perhaps  designs  his  own  profit,  but  the 
passer-by  who  needs  these  wares  is  grateful  for  their 
display.  The  gratitude  of  the  salesperson  receiving 
the  purchaser's  money  demands  the  reciprocal  grati- 
tude of  the  purchaser  for  the  opportunity  of  securing 
the  goods.  The  physician,  the  missionary,  the  lawyer, 
the  explorer  all  work  for  humanity,  and  a  recognition 
of  this  fact  is  necessary  to  the  pupils'  proper  moral 
attitude.  Let  the  child  but  consider  in  some  detail 
the  complexity  of  the  process  necessary  to  the  pro- 
duction of  some  of  the  most  common  useful  objects 
and  he  will  be  nearer  to  a  view  of  humanity  as  a  work- 
ing whole. 

Geographical  Concepts. — The  consideration,  in  the 
last  chapter,  of  mathematical  ideas,  led  us  to  lay  em- 


GEOGRAPHY  197 

phasis  upon  their  essentially  abstract  nature.  Ob- 
jective work  formed,  as  it  were,  a  kind  of  crutch,  which 
was  to  be  thrown  away  as  soon  as  possible.  The  same 
point  of  view  is  by  no  means  applicable  to  geographical 
ideas.  Geography  is  a  concrete  science,  and  in  the  ele- 
mentary course,  at  least,  and  perhaps  higher,  the  in- 
struction can  scarcely  be  made  too  objective.  Text- 
book study  of  geography  tends  to  degenerate  into  mere 
verbalism.  Even  map  study,  improperly  handled,  will 
not  supply  the  needed  concreteness.  The  superinten- 
dent who  asked  a  fifth  year  class  why  New  Hampshire 
was  colored  red  on  the  map  and  Vermont  green,  is 
said  to  have  received  the  response,  "  Because  the  color 
of  the  ground  is  different."  This  may  be  a  facetious 
exaggeration,  but  all  geography  teachers  are  aware  of 
the  misunderstandings  of  pupils  trained  verbally  or  by 
text-books  merely.  The  author,  perhaps  below  the 
average  of  his  class  in  brightness,  had  an  idea  that  the 
Nile  River  flowed  up  and  he  frequently  wondered,  in  a 
vague  way,  how  it  managed  to  overcome  the  force  of 
gravity.  Nevertheless,  in  the  lesson,  he  could  recite 
as  glibly  as  the  next  one  the  exact  source,  course,  etc., 
of  the  river.  The  nature  of  geographical  concepts 
makes  it  advisable  to  employ  the  type  method  to  a 
great  extent.  In  teaching  volcanoes,  for  instance,  it  is 
a  good  plan  to  take  one  typical  and  interesting  volcano, 
such  as  Vesuvius,  and  explain  its  structure,  activity, 
and  interesting  historical  eruptions  thoroughly.  Out 
of  such  a  lesson  will  spring  a  connotation  which  can 
then  be  attached  to  the  term  volcano,  and  give  to  it 
the  picturesque  reality  demanded  by  real  geographical 


198         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

instruction.  The  same  result  may  be  attained  induc- 
tively, but  not  with  such  effectiveness. 

Geographical  Definitions. — What  was  said  about  the 
function  of  definitions  in  grammar  applies,  to  a  con- 
siderable extent,  to  geography.  Recognition  of  the 
denotation  is  the  important  factor,  and  definition  is 
desirable  in  so  far  as  it  helps  toward  this  end.  The 
definitions  of  geographical  terms  are,  however,  more 
easily  comprehended,  being  far  less  abstract  than  those 
of  grammar.  Besides,  as  a  propaedeutic  to  high  school 
work  in  science,  precision  of  definition  helps  to  create 
an  ideal  of  the  accuracy  essential  to  scientific  method. 
Such  work  should,  however,  be  deferred  until  the 
seventh  or  eighth  school  years,  and  should  never,  ex- 
cept in  very  provisional  form,  be  required  in  the  early 
years.  Provisional  definition  is  more  necessary  in 
geography  than  in  grammar,  because  there  is  not  the 
same  richness  of  mental  content  in  the  former  subject 
as  in  the  latter.  A  child  habitually  uses  nouns  and 
verbs  correctly  long  before  he  knows  these  terms,  but 
isthmuses  and  continents  necessitate  instruction  in 
both  subject  matter  and  terminology.  One  result  of 
this  difference  is  that  the  Socratic  method  is  not  ap- 
plicable to  nearly  so  great  an  extent. 

Where  the  denotation  of  a  geographical  term  is  quite 
narrow  as  in  the  case  of  ocean  or  continent,  exhaustive 
definition  has  no  place  in  the  elementary  course.  The 
pupil  is  not  sufficiently  mature  to  profit  by  or  even  ap- 
preciate the  nice  distinctions  made  by  scientific  geog- 
raphers. That  there  are  five  oceans,  to  appreciate  the 
fact  that  they  are  large  bodies  of  salt  water,  to  know 


GEOGRAPHY  199 

their  names,  and  to  be  able  to  point  them  out  promptly 
on  a  map  is  certainly  sufficient  knowledge  of  this  sub- 
ject for  an  elementary  pupil.  Similarly  "  continent " 
whether  taken  as  having  a  denotation  of  two,  three,  or 
six  land  masses,  needs  but  brief  description  and  ac- 
curate recognition.  In  many  parts  of  elementary 
geography  the  wise  teacher  will  depend  on  realistic 
description  rather  than  upon  definition. 

Mental  Organization  of  Geographical  Facts. — Perhaps 
no  other  branch  in  the  curriculum  affords  such  plenti- 
ful opportunity  for  the  apperceptive  organization  of 
its  subject  matter  as  does  geography.  The  discussion 
of  the  question  as  to  how  many  things  can  be  attended 
to  at  one  time  applies  with  especial  force  to  geography. 
The  natural  interrelations  of  climate,  productions,  oc- 
cupations, and  civilization,  for  example,  must  become 
mentally  related  systems  of  knowledge  for  the  pupils. 
It  would  constitute  an  unpardonable  pedagogic  waste 
to  teach  the  river  systems  of  a  continent  completely 
and  then,  at  a  later  time,  to  teach  its  surface  as  a  dis- 
tinct lesson.  Thus  improperly  taught,  the  pupil  has 
two  mental  systems  instead  of  one.  Pedagogically 
connected,  such  groups  of  knowledge  make  for  a  more 
thorough  retention,  as  the  two  groups  mutually  rein- 
force each  other.  The  thoughtful  teacher  will  be  con- 
stantly on  the  lookout  for  such  means  of  unifying  the 
pupils'  knowledge  of  geography.  In  this  kind  of 
work  self-activity  can  and  should  come  into  play. 
What  a  river  is  may  have  to  be  simply  told  to  the 
pupils,  but  why  the  Mississippi,  for  instance,  flows 
south  should  be  drawn  from  the  pupils  on  the  basis 


200         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

of  their  previous  knowledge  of  the  surface  of  the 
United  States.  Similarly,  the  location  of  the  great 
eastern  cities  of  this  country  can  be  developed  in  an 
interesting  way  on  the  basis  of  data,  both  historical 
and  geographical. 

Objective  Methods. — As  previously  indicated,  most  of 
the  geographical  instruction  of  the  past  and  much 
of  that  of  the  present  was  characterized  by  a  verbal 
formalism  deadening  alike  to  interest  and  real  com- 
prehension. It  is  probable  that  one  could  walk  into 
a  modern  school  today  and  find  a  pernicious  teaching 
of  rivers,  for  example,  taking  some  such  form  as  the 
memorizing  of  verbal  descriptions  of  their  courses, 
from  note  book  records  dictated  by  the  teacher.  So 
far  as  the  map  is  referred  to  at  all,  its  effect  is  nothing 
more  than  the  association  between  such  verbal  descrip- 
tion and  a  thin  black  snaky  line  with  a  printed  name, 
a  line  suggesting  neither  swimming,  wading,  nor  any- 
thing at  all  wet.  Similarly  cities  tend  to  remain  mere 
dots,  mountains  caterpillar-like  formations,  etc. 

But  little  thought  is  needed  to  show  the  futility  of 
such  empty,  verbal  teaching.  Concreteness  is  the  very 
soul  of  real  geographic  knowledge.  The  best  way  to 
secure  this  concreteness  is  obviously  to  acquaint  the 
pupils  with  the  actual  places  or  facts  to  be  studied. 
Observation  of  a  city,  river,  industry,  etc.,  wherever 
possible,  is  the  best  method.  If  it  were  practicable,  a 
traveling  geography  class  would  be  ideal.  A  wealthy 
youth,  accompanied  by  a  wise  tutor,  can  secure  his 
geographical  knowledge  in  this  way.  It  is,  of  course, 
manifestly  impossible  for  a  New  York  or  Philadelphia 


GEOGRAPHY  201 

public  school  teacher  to  take  her  class  to  Egypt  when 
she  takes  up  the  study  of  that  country.  But  she  can 
take  her  pupils  on  various  geographical  excursions,  to 
zoological  gardens,  botanical  collections,  museums, 
mills,  factories,  etc.  where  actual  observation  may  help 
to  lay  an  important  perceptive  basis  for  their  knowl- 
edge. Or  she  can  bring  various  objects  and  products 
into  the  school  room,  when  their  size  and  accessibility 
permit. 

The  difficulties  attending  geographical  excursions 
make  this  excellent  form  of  instruction  less  frequent 
than  would  be  desirable.  Boards  of  Education, 
through  lack  of  pedagogic  insight,  tend  to  discourage 
this  interesting  method  by  permitting  class  excursions 
far  too  seldom  as  well  as  by  withholding  needed  finan- 
cial aid.  The  teacher  also  is  apt  to  feel  discouraged  by 
the  tremendous  responsibility  of  the  physical  and 
moral  supervision  of  forty  or  more  children.  These 
difficulties  can  be  overcome,  if  the  principal  and 
teachers  possess  the  right  spirit,  by  arranging  for  the 
taking  of  a  class  in  two  or  three  sections  or  groups, 
and  by  securing  the  cooperation  of  some  interested 
parents  of  the  community.  In  every  case,  the  teacher 
should  first  go  over  the  ground  thoroughly  by  herself 
and  determine  on  a  specific  plan  or  campaign  of  ob- 
servation. She  should  also  realize  the  importance  of 
preparing  her  pupils  for  the  trip,  not  telling  them  so 
much  as  to  take  the  edge  off  their  curiosity,  but  just 
sufficient  to  render  them  appreciative  and  receptive. 
The  excursions  should  be  supplemented  by  live  oral 
recitation,  to  be  followed  profitably  by  a  formal  writ- 


202         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

ten  exercise,  based  on  blackboard  outline  of  the  salient 
points  worked  out  jointly  by  teacher  and  pupils. 
Written  exercises,  invariably  following  excursions,  may 
easily  become  burdensome  and  give  to  an  otherwise 
pleasant  occasion  an  association  of  a  disagreeable,  in- 
hibitory character. 

Where  the  real  object  cannot  be  brought  before  the 
pupils'  observation,  either  by  excursion  or  in  the  class 
room,  models  and  pictures  should  be  used.  Care  must 
be  taken  that  they  are  accurately  interpreted  par- 
ticularly as  to  size.  Pictures  should  be  both  typical 
and  realistic.  To  secure  the  former  aim,  line  draw- 
ings are  usually  far  more  effective  than  halftone  re- 
productions of  photographs,  where  the  obtrusion  of 
unimportant  detail  is  frequently  unavoidable.  Every 
school  should  be  equipped  with  a  lantern,  and  abun- 
dant sets  of  interesting  views.  A  central  library  of 
such  lantern  slides  should  be  in  the  possession  of 
every  school  system  which  pretends  to  real  educational 
modernness.  As  the  process  is  cheapened  and  made 
safer  for  school  room  use,  the  moving  picture  will  be- 
come a  wonderful  means  for  teaching  geography.  Its 
educational  advantages  have  already  been  recognized, 
and  its  use  is  bound  to  increase  greatly  in  the  next 
decade. 

In  all  such  pictorial  work,  care  must  be  taken  that 
the  showing  of  views  shall  not  degenerate  into  mere 
diversion.  The  vogue  of  the  illustrated  lecture  is  at- 
tended with  dangers  in  the  school  as  well  as  upon 
the  public  platform.  A  picture  is  an  illustration,  a 


GEOGRAPHY  203 

perceptual  element  of  the  concept.  It  must  always 
be  subordinated  to  the  system  of  organized  ideas  which 
it  is  intended  to  vivify.  Good  verbal  descriptions,  ac- 
companied by  active  questioning  of  the  pupils,  is  far 
superior  to  spiritless  showing  of  pictures. 

Home  Geography. — It  is  generally  conceded  that  the 
first  study  of  geography  should  base  itself  on  observa- 
tion and  description  of  the  home  environment,  the  city 
or  village  in  which  the  children  reside.  Such  initial 
work  furnishes  a  rich  field  of  perception  out  of  which 
can  be  developed  in  due  time  the  necessary  concepts. 
Apart  from  this  psychological  consideration,  however, 
an  important  utilitarian  aim  is  also  attained.  A  defi- 
nite knowledge  of  home  geography  is  a  most  useful  ac- 
quisition. The  nearness  of  the  surroundings  make  ex- 
cursions desirable  and  practicable.  If  the  town  is 
situated  on  a  river,  the  pupils  should  be  taken  in  a 
boat  for  a  considerable  ride,  their  attention  being  di- 
rected to  objects  of  interest,  the  shipping,  docks,  tides, 
etc.  Similarly  if  the  school  is  near  a  mining  region, 
a  visit  to  the  mines  with  competent  guides  is  manifestly 
important.  Like  opportunities  may  be  afforded  in  cer- 
tain communities  for  the  direct  observation  of  agricul- 
ture, grazing,  commerce,  and  manufacturing.  The  in- 
dustrial processes  form  perhaps  the  most  important 
factor  of  this  observation  work.  Actual  perceptual 
knowledge  of  the  processess  involved  in  the  making  of 
some  simple  household  article  broadens  our  ideas  and 
deepens  our  respect  for  labor  and  laborers.  After  all, 
life  is  at  least  two  dimensional,  and  should  be  meas- 


204         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

ured  in  breadth  as  well  as  in  length.  Peculiarly  sig- 
nificant for  their  mental  broadening  is  the  human 
element. 

A  primrose  by  the  river's  brim 

A  yellow  primrose  was  to  him 

And  it  was  nothing  more 

applies  with  much  greater  force  to  artificial  than  to 
natural  objects.  One  who  has  followed  the  making  of 
a  cannon  from  the  cutting  of  the  wooden  pattern, 
through  the  casting,  up  to  the  last  finishing  touches 
will  see  ever  so  much  more  when  he  looks  upon  a  can- 
non than  one  who  is  ignorant  of  these  processes. 
Work  of  this  character  may  well  claim  a  considerable 
happiness  value.  Apart  from  its  obvious  utilitarian- 
ism, therefore,  home  geography  is  particularly  impor- 
tant as  supplying  the  perceptive  foundation  for  this 
deeper  and  broader  knowledge. 

Map  Study. — The  geographical  map  stands,  as  it 
were,  between  pictorial  and  verbal  description.  Al- 
though more  symbolic  than  either,  its  symbolism  is 
quite  effective,  as  it  appeals  to  the  eye  and  enables 
the  pupils  to  get  a  simultaneous  grasp  of  numerous 
details.  The  principal  danger  of  map  study  is,  as  in 
the  verbal  study,  that  it  is  apt  to  remain  a  mere  sym- 
bolism, representative  in  but  a  slight  degree  of  ma- 
terial realities.  The  child  who  in  response  to  '  *  Where 
have  you  seen  the  surface  of  the  earth  ? ' '  said  ' '  On  the 
map ' '  instantly  betrayed  a  faulty  method  of  teaching. 
Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the  tendency  of 


GEOGRAPHY  205 

the  black  dots  and  snaky  lines  to  remain  just  so,  in- 
stead of  suggesting  cities  and  rivers. 

This  finality  of  the  symbol  may  be  obviated  but  not 
absolutely  eliminated  by  a  slow  and  thoughtful  intro- 
ductory teaching  of  the  map.  The  fundamental  con- 
sideration is  *  *  scale. ' '  The  fact  that  a  large  room  can 
be  adequately  represented  on  a  small  piece  of  paper 
must  first  be  grasped  by  all  the  pupils.  This  should 
be  developed  Socratically,  as  the  idea  is  too  important 
and  of  too  general  application  for  the  teacher  to  de- 
pend on  mere  telling.  If  the  class  room  is  five  yards 
by  six  yards  and  the  same  proportion  is  to  be  shown 
on  the  pupils'  plans,  they  must  be  led  to  see  that  if 
they  use  inches  instead  of  yards,  their  drawing  must 
be  five  inches  by  six  inches.  They  should  then  be 
taught  the  word  scale  and  should  place  upon  their 
papers  something  like  the  following.  ''Scale — One 
inch  stands  for  one  yard. ' '  After  they  have  succeeded 
in  drawing  their  class  room  plans  with  its  windows 
and  desks  to  approximate  scale,  they  should  be  sup- 
plied with  simple  blueprints  or  mimeographed  plans  of 
various  dimensions,  and  with  the  aid  of  scale  and  rule 
should  determine  the  actual  dimensions  of  the  rooms. 
Plans  of  squares  and  parks  should  be  similarly  treated, 
the  larger  denomination  mile  taking  the  place  of  the 
foot  or  yard. 

After  considerable  practice  in  drawing  and  reading 
simple  plans,  the  pupils  are  ready  for  the  study  of  the 
conventional  methods  of  map  representation.  This 
work,  of  course,  makes  some  perceptive  or  vividly  de- 


206         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

scriptive  knowledge  of  rivers,  mountains,  oceans,  etc., 
an  essential  presupposition.  If  the  home  geography 
can  furnish  the  requisite  observation  material  it 
should  certainly  be  employed.  In  the  absence  cf  such 
favorable  environment,  its  place  must  be  taken  by  pic- 
tures and  description.  Moulding  in  clay  or  sand  is 
an  excellent  way  of  representing  clearly  to  the  minds 
of  the  pupils  such  features  as  mountains,  valleys, 
river  basins,  etc.  Much  of  this  objective  work  is  apt 
to  find  disfavor  with  teachers  on  the  score  of  its  being 
troublesome.  This  is  a  just  criticism,  perhaps,  but  it 
must  be  remembered  that  the  best  results  in  teaching 
as  well  as  in  life  are  by  no  means  those  characterized 
by  ease  of  attainment.  It  is  moreover  a  consoling 
consideration  to  know  that  time  spent  in  such  a  man- 
ner is  really  economically  employed  in  that  it  yields 
a  compound  interest  of  thorough  mental  organization. 
Particularly  where  the  pupils  themselves  do  the  work 
in  moulding  are  the  results  most  effective. 

It  is  necessary  to  remember,  in  all  such  objective 
work,  that  a  good  pedagogic  beginning  is,  after  all, 
only  a  beginning.  Some  teachers  show  an  alarming 
willingness  to  accept  the  crown  for  a  well  planned  in- 
itial lesson  or  two  and  then  drift  back  into  a  formal 
verbalism  which  soon  obliterates  all  traces  of  the  ex- 
cellent start.  Elementary  geography  begins,  con- 
tinues, and  ends  in  the  concrete. 

Maps  readily  degenerate  into  collections  of  conven- 
tional symbols  unless  frequent  reference  is  made  to 
their  underlying  realities.  Map  reading  is  an  exercise 
which  should  ever  accompany  objective  work.  A  se- 


GEOGRAPHY  207 

ries  of  prints  showing  picturesque  views  of  the  Rhine, 
for  example,  should  be  immediately  followed  by  the 
study  of  a  map  of  the  region  on  which  are  clearly  in- 
dicated the  interesting  places  which  have  just  been  the 
subject  of  pictorial  representation.  This  map  reading 
should  also  include  exercises  in  working  out  relation- 
ships such  as  drainage  and  surface,  surface  and  in- 
dustries, commerce  and  city  locations,  etc.  The  black 
snaky  line  is  apt  to  be  ' '  desymbolized "  into  a  real 
river  when  the  pupil  is  required  to  determine  from  its 
course  the  slope  of  the  land.  The  black  dot  must  needs 
lose  some  of  its  "dottiness"  when  it  suggests  a  pros- 
perous port  with  its  shipping  and  active  industrial 
life.  The  scarcity  of  dots  in  regions  like  northern 
Canada  or  in  the  Amazon  basin  becomes  significant 
when  connected  with  climatic  considerations.  It  is 
doubtful  whether  associative  work  of  this  character 
can  be  overdone. 

Map  Drawing. — The  above  considerations  in  regard 
to  map  study  have  important  implications  for  map 
drawing.  Observation,  emphasis,  and  correlation  are 
the  essential  factors  of  this  work.  It  may  be  said  in 
passing  that  few  geography  text-books  are  well 
equipped  with  adequate  pedagogical  maps.  Commer- 
cial considerations  perhaps  lead  publishers  to  include 
a  wealth  of  detail,  rendering  the  maps  confusing  and 
unfitted  for  local  use.  When  the  engraving  of  maps 
becomes  a  cheaper  process,  the  local  needs  of  various 
communities  will  perhaps  receive  greater  considera- 
tion. 

There  is  no  better  way  of  insuring  close  observa- 


208         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

tion  of  any  object  than  by  requiring  pupils  to  draw 
it.  Self -activity  is  called  into  play  and  the  resultant 
drawing  furnishes  an  excellent  means  of  testing  the 
pupils'  care  and  attention.  This  consideration  applies 
with  especial  force  to  map  drawing.  If,  for  instance, 
the  teacher  desires  the  pupils  to  observe  closely  the 
character  of  the  coastline  of  Europe,  the  easiest  and 
best  way  is  to  have  them  draw  it.  The  adherents  of 
the  formal  discipline  doctrine  would  find  the  greatest 
value  of  such  work  to  consist  in  the  training  of  the 
power  of  observation.  It  does,  in  truth,  furnish  op- 
portunity for  the  strengthening  of  an  ideal  of  care- 
ful scrutiny,  but  its  chief  value  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
emphasizes  a  specific  geographical  fact.  Tracing  over 
the  contour  of  a  light  outline  map  would  not  be  nearly 
so  effective  in  securing  this  result,  although  even  this 
method  is  far  superior  to  mere  verbal  description. 

Geographical  emphasis  may  often  be  secured  through 
carefully  selected  map  drawing.  Teachers  often  err 
by  requiring  too  much  detail  and  too  extensive  a  map. 
If  it  is  desired,  for  instance,  to  fix  the  zones  in  which 
North  America  is  situated,  three  separate  maps  will 
probably  be  found  more  effective  than  one  entire  map 
of  the  continent.  A  map  of  the  portion  in  the  North 
Frigid  zone,  bounded  on  the  south  by  the  Arctic  Circle, 
followed  by  a  map  of  the  portion  bounded  on  the  north 
by  the  Tropic  of  Cancer,  and  then  by  a  map  of  the 
intermediate  portion  will  provide  an  interesting  and 
emphasizing  exercise.  A  carefully  drawn  map  of 
Long  Island  Sound  drawn  once  is  far  better  than  a 
dozen  maps  of  the  United  States,  with  this  body  of 


GEOGRAPHY  209 

water  cramped  and  crowded  into  each  of  them.  The 
teacher  will  be  guided  in  her  selection  of  what  is  to  be 
drawn  by  the  conventional  value  as  well  as  by  the 
local  utilitarian  value  of  the  knowledge. 

Along  with  the  pedagogical  emphasis  attaching  to 
such  selective  map  drawing  there  is  abundant  oppor- 
tunity for  geographical  correlation.  In  fact,  every 
selection  forms  a  kind  of  correlation.  The  definite 
omissions  of  the  unselected  portions  give  a  rational 
setting  to  that  which  is  drawn.  The  omission  of  the 
United  States,  for  example,  from  the  Torrid  Zone  por- 
tion of  North  America  becomes  peculiarly  significant. 
Apart  from  this,  however,  definite  explicit  correlation 
can  and  should  be  secured.  A  map  of  Asia  showing 
only  the  mountain  systems  and  rivers  binds  together  in 
a  firm  association  these  two  related  factors.  So  a 
map  of  eastern  United  States  showing  only  the  moun- 
tains and  mining  regions  secures  an  important  mental 
connection.  Much  of  this  correlational  work  can  be  ef- 
fectively done  on  outline  maps,  as  it  would  obviously 
be  a  waste  of  time  to  require  the  pupils  to  draw  the 
contour  in  every  case. 

Although  neatness  and  accuracy  are  desirable  qual- 
ities in  every  school  exercise,  they  must  not  be  pushed 
to  an  irrational  or  unpedagogic  extreme  in  map  draw- 
ing. In  no  case  should  the  aim  become  artistic.  As  in 
Hamlet  the  play  was  the  thing,  so  here,  the  thing  is 
the  impressing  of  certain  geographical  facts.  The 
elaborateness  and  finish  required  by  some  teachers  of 
map  drawing  is  unsound  pedagogy  from  every  point 
of  view.  Many  maps  should  be  avowedly  rough  and 


210          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

sketchy,  intended  merely  to  serve  some  specific  geo- 
graphical end.  In  some  cases,  perhaps  unprogressive 
and  misguided  teachers  have  found  elaborate,  detailed 
map  drawing  an  easy  way  of  setting  their  pupils  to 
work  for  long  periods,  and  a  restful — to  the  teacher — 
exercise  in  which  supervision  was  apparently  unneces- 
sary. At  an  educational  exhibit  in  one  of  the  large 
expositions,  some  years  ago,  one  of  the  severest  criti- 
cisms wras  leveled  by  visiting  educators  at  a  display  of 
maps  drawn  by  grammar  school  pupils,  who,  from  the 
excellence  of  their  work,  might  have  seemed  destined 
to  take  up  map  engraving  as  a  profession.  The 
slightest  consideration  of  the  time  spent  in  prepar- 
ing this  exhibit  would  be  sufficient  to  condemn  it  at 
once. 

Occupations. — With  the  same  reservations  and  cau- 
tions made  in  connection  with  the  illustrative  lessons 
of  the  two  preceding  chapters,  the  foregoing  principles 
may  perhaps  be  made  clearer  by  a  few  similar  specific 
examples. 

In  teaching  the  occupations  of  man  to  young  chil- 
dren, the  teacher  must  first  consider  what  knowledge 
the  class  already  possesses.  Comprehension  of  occu- 
pations in  general  will  be  more  clearly  grasped  if  it  can 
find  a  basis  of  actual  experience  in  some  particular 
occupation.  In  a  section  of  a  city  where  practically 
all  the  fathers  of  the  pupils  have  stores  or  shops,  the 
work  might  well  begin  with  trading,  buying  and  sell- 
ing as  a  part  of  commerce.  The  actual  observation  of 
the  children  will  form  the  corner  stone  of  their  intel- 
lectual apprehension  of  this  one  occupation.  Excur- 


GEOGRAPHY  211 

sions  to  wharves,  docks,  or  freight  stations  will  enlarge 
their  ideas.  Throughout  this  work,  emphasis  must  be 
laid  upon  the  various  phases  of  commerce  as  a  means 
of  making  money  or  earning  a  livelihood.  In  a  min- 
ing, lumbering,  or  agricultural  district,  these  respec- 
tive occupations  would  form  the  perceptive  basis. 

The  pupils  should  then  be  led  to  understand  the 
various  leading  occupations  in  as  objective  and  pictur- 
esque a  way  as  possible.  Next  to  visiting  industrial 
establishments,  there  is  no  more  realistic  way  of  pre- 
senting this  subject  than  by  means  of  moving  pictures. 
Let  the  teachers  once  realize  the  educational  efficiency 
of  Edison's  great  invention,  and  lanterns  and  appro- 
priate films  will  soon  be  forthcoming.  The  various  oc- 
cupations should  not  be  taken  up  simultaneously,  but 
sufficient  time  should  be  given  to  each  to  allow  of 
building  up  an  organized  mass  of  knowledge.  Only 
after  this  has  been  done,  should  the  pupil  be  led  to 
group  together  the  various  occupations  as  so  many 
ways  of  earning  a  livelihood.  The  term  occupation 
will  have  been  used  in  connection  with  each  form,  so 
that  it  may  easily  attach  itself  to  its  rather  simple 
connotation. 

In  the  course  of  these  lessons,  abundant  oppor- 
tunities are  offered  for  geographical  correlation.  The 
influence  of  location,  climate,  soil,  and  surface  upon  oc- 
cupation should  not  be  disregarded.  Map  reading  ex- 
ercises in  which  the  pupils  are  asked  to  determine  the 
probable  nature  of  the  occupations  in  various  regions 
will  be  found  an  interesting  means  of  organizing  and 
fixing  their  knowledge.  Every  geographical  fact — 


212          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

and  occupation  is  a  very  important  one — should  be 
regarded  as  an  effect,  whose  causes  should  be  ascer- 
tained so  far  as  possible  by  the  self -active  search  of  the 
pupils. 

The  Straits  of  Europe. — In  teaching  a  lesson  on  the 
straits  of  Europe,  the  teacher  should  bear  in  mind  the 
conventional  value  of  this  knowledge  to  the  ordinary 
American  child.  The  method  of  teaching  will  be  pro- 
foundly influenced  by  a  recognition  of  this  value. 
Historical  and  literary  associations  of  an  interesting 
character  should  be  brought  out.  Latern  views,  pic- 
tures, and  geographic  descriptions  must  make  the  pres- 
entation as  objective  as  possible.  The  ability  to  give 
the  exact  location  of  these  straits  is  not  nearly  so  im- 
portant as  the  knowledge  of  interesting  events  con- 
nected with  them. 

Their  location  may  be  fixed  by  the  pupils  making 
imaginary  voyages  from  place  to  place,  with  their 
maps  before  them.  Additional  interest  may  be  gained 
by  questioning  the  pupils  as  to  the  strategic  im- 
portance of  control  of  the  straits  in  case  of  war. 
This  will  also  help  in  organizing  their  knowledge  and 
connecting  it  with  naturally  related  facts.  The  Bos- 
phorus,  for  example,  must  be  thought  of  as  the  key 
to  southern  Russia,  a  fact  which  will  explain  the 
peculiar  relation  of  Turkey  to  the  rest  of  Europe. 
A  fortress  and  fleet  at  Gibraltar  as  an  advantage  to 
British  control  of  the  Mediterranean  will  be  readily 
grasped  by  even  young  pupils.  The  Kiel  Canal  can 
probably  be  compared  with  the  long  voyage  through 
the  Cattegat  and  Skagerack,  and  the  resultant  ad- 


GEOGRAPHY  213 

vantage  to  the  northern  German  fleet  will  be  easily 
understood. 

It  is  perfectly  obvious  that  such  teaching  of  the 
European  Straits  is  far  superior  to  the  mere  drill  in 
exact  locations.  The  map  study  involved  in  answer- 
ing questions  like  those  indicated  above  will  suffi- 
ciently impress  the  location.  If  thought  necessary, 
the  latter  may  be  further  emphasized  by  the  pupils 
printing  upon  an  outline  map  the  names  of  the  straits 
and  of  the  countries  whose  shores  they  separate.  So 
long,  of  course,  as  makers  of  term  examinations  ask 
for  mere  locations,  drill  in  location  is  apt  to  take  the 
place  of  the  interesting  study  suggested  by  the  nature 
of  the  subject. 

Direction. — The  value  of  a  knowledge  of  direction 
is  primarily  utilitarian.  The  eight  principal  points 
of  the  compass  should  be  understood  by  all  elementary 
pupils.  Particularly  should  the  child  be  able  to  de- 
termine the  other  points  of  the  compass  when  he 
knows  one.  He  should  quickly  and  accurately  derive 
north,  east,  and  south  from  west ;  west,  east,  and  north 
from  south,  etc.  This  utilitarian  value  determines  the 
aim  of  the  teacher's  instruction  and  drill. 

Although  north  is  the  most  logical  direction  with 
which  to  begin,  east  is  probably  the  most  satisfac- 
tory pedagogically.  That  the  sun  rises  in  the  east 
and  sets  in  the  west  is  known  by  most  children  by 
the  time  they  take  up  geography,  or  it  can  readily 
be  shown.  Observation  of  morning  shadows  as  com- 
pared with  afternoon  or  evening  shadows,  as  well  as 
observation  of  the  sun  itself,  will  determine  east  and 


214         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

west  as  two  exactly  opposite  directions.  North  and 
south  can  then  easily  be  derived.  A  large  arrow 
painted  upon  the  floor  of  the  class  room,  indicating 
north,  would  tend  to  familiarize  the  pupils  with  the 
directional  relations  of  their  own  room.  They  should 
occasionally  stand  up  facing  exactly  north,  then  indi- 
cate east  and  west  respectively  by  raising  first  the 
right  and  then  the  left  hand,  finishing  the  exercise 
— which  might  assume  some  of  the  character  of  a 
gymnastic  drill — by  wheeling  around  and  facing  the 
south.  They  should  be  led  to  ascertain  the  directions 
of  their  respective  homes  from  the  school  house,  at 
least  to  the  extent  of  almost  south,  between  north  and 
east,  etc.  Similarly  they  should  know  the  directions 
of  the  principal  streets.  Of  course,  when  the  four 
intermediate  points— N.  E.,  N.  W.,  S.  E.,  and  S.  W.— 
are  learned,  more  accurate  directions  may  be  de- 
manded. 

In  teaching  the  direction  north,  three  important 
ways  of  determining  it  should  be  explained,  viz.,  the 
compass,  the  shadows  at  noon,  and  the  north  star. 
There  is  possible  utilitarian  value  in  all  three  of  these 
methods  and  certainly  considerable  conventional 
value.  If  possible,  the  teacher  should  secure  a 
mariner's  compass  and  exhibit  it  to  the  children.  Its 
importance  to  the  seaman  can  be  explained  so  simply 
that  young  pupils  could  easily  comprehend  it.  How 
far  magnetism  as  an  electrical  phenomenon  should 
be  discussed  would  naturally  depend  upon  the  age  of 
the  children.  Even  young  children,  however,  should 
have  some  tentative  explanation  of  the  mysterious 


GEOGRAPHY  21 5 

movements  of  the  steel  needle.  The  noon  shadows  of 
vertical  objects  form  a  handy  method  of  determining 
north.  The  fact  that  at  noon  the  sun  is  directly 
over  our  meridian  due  south  of  us  can  be  explained  in 
connection  with  the  time  abbreviations  A.  M.  and  P.  M. 
The  method  of  locating1  the  north  star  by  means  of 
the  Great  Dipper  is  interesting  as  well  as  useful. 
Night  excursions  for  young  pupils  are  not  to  be  rec- 
ommended. Still  it  would  probably  not  be  amiss  to 
have  a  class  come  to  school  some  evening  late  in  the 
fall,  to  be  shown  exactly  how  to  find  this  important 
star.  The  opportunity  would  also  be  afforded  for  an 
interesting  study  of  a  few  of  the  conspicuous  con- 
stellations, such  as  Orion,  Pleiades,  Aurega,  etc.  The 
happiness  as  well  as  the  conventional  value  of  a 
knowledge  of  these  constellations  is  not  to  be  lightly 
brushed  aside.  Merely  knowing  their  names  enlivens 
an  evening  walk  for  the  incipient  astronomer  as  much 
as  knowing  the  names  of  plants  does  for  the  wander- 
ing botanist.  It  is  an  instance  of  life  broadening. 

The  direction  we  have  been  considering  thus  far 
may  be  called  absolute,  as  distinguished  from  rela- 
tive direction,  such  as  is  indicated  on  maps.  No  mat- 
ter how  the  book  may  be  placed,  the  top  of  the  map 
is  north  and  the  bottom  south.  As  referred  to  be- 
fore, care  must  be  taken  that  relative  positions  on  a 
map  must  be  properly  interpreted  as  indicating  ac- 
tual directions.  The  words  above  and  below  should 
riot  be  permitted  to  take  the  place  of  north  and  south. 
In  the  first  introduction  of  direction  in  connection 
with  map  stud}T  and  drawing,  teachers  should  assure 


216  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

themselves  of  the  pupil's  comprehension  of  the  repre- 
sentation. Wall  maps  which  must  as  a  rule  hang 
vertically  should  occasionally  be  placed  upon  the 
floor,  making  the  relative  directions  coincide  with  the 
absolute.  Teachers  are  prone  to  make  light  of  this 
confusion,  but  it  exists  and  must  be  guarded  against. 

It  is  probable  that  the  uncertainty  of  ejective  knowl- 
edge is  nowhere  so  well  exhibited  as  in  the  ill- war- 
ranted assurance  of  many  teachers  in  regard  to  their 
pupils'  comprehension  of  the  symbolism  of  maps. 

Meridians  and  Parallels  of  Latitude. — In  the  teach- 
ing of  meridians  and  parallels,  the  concept  to  be  de- 
veloped is  mathematical  and  abstract.  The  concrete- 
ness  which  is  characteristic  of  so  much  of  the  geog- 
raphy course  is  not  applicable  here  except  in  the  way 
of  objective  illustration.  The  pupils  must  fully 
grasp  the  fact  that  these  lines  are  symbolic  or  imag- 
inary. The  presuppositions  are  familiarity  with  the 
globe  as  representing  the  earth,  the  equator,  poles, 
and  a  knowledge  of  circular  measure.  The  latter 
presupposition  would  probably  necessitate  a  separate 
preparatory  lesson.  The  fact  that  the  circle  is  di- 
vided into  360  degrees  must  be  told  by  the  teacher. 
Considerable  oral  drill  should  fix  this  fact.  Par- 
ticularly should  the  pupils  be  required  to  solve 
promptly  such  problems  as  "How  many  degrees  in  a 
quarter  of  a  circle?"  "In  a  half  circle?"  etc.  The 
division  of  the  clock  circumference  into  seconds  and 
minutes  is  known  to  the  pupils  and  can  be  related  to 
the  corresponding  divisions  of  a  degree.  The  marks 
'  and  "  should  also  be  taught.  Some  simple  written 


GEOGRAPHY  217 

work  involving  degrees,  minutes,  and  seconds  should 
be  given  to  fix  circular  measure  in  its  entirety. 

The  aim  of  the  lesson,  from  the  pupils'  viewpoint, 
would  be  brought  out  best  by  arousing  an  attitude 
of  expectant  attention  based  upon  the  felt  need  of  the 
explanation.  The  pupils  could  be  questioned  as  to 
how  they  would  direct  a  stranger  to  a  certain  part  of 
the  city,  or,  as  to  how  they  would  state  its  location. 
Streets  and  roads  would  naturally  form  an  essential 
part  of  their  answers.  "Where  is  the  new  hotel?" 
"At  the  corner  of  Main  Street  and  Willow  Avenue." 
"On  Cedar  Lane,  between  North  Street  and  High 
Road,"  etc.,  etc.  Now  the  teacher  arouses  curiosity 
by  asking  what  method  of  location  could  be  used 
where  there  are  no  streets  or  roads,  e.  g.,  in  a  wilder- 
ness, a  desert,  or  on  the  sea.  A  small  fishing  boat 
chances  to  see  a  wrecked  ocean  liner  far  out  of  sight 
of  land.  How  can  it  remember  the  location  so  that 

V. 

it  may  be  able  to  direct  a  rescuing  crew  from  the 
shore?  Such  questions  will  easily  arouse  in  the  pu- 
pils' minds  the  need  of  something  bearing  a  resem- 
blance to  the  cross  streets  of  a  city.  They  are  then 
ready  to  be  told  about  the  great  circles  running 
through  the  poles,  called  meridian  circles,  and  the 
other  circles  parallel  to  the  equator  and  north  and 
south  of  it.  The  names  latitude  and  longitude  should 
then  be  introduced,  and  the  pupils  shown  a  globe 
plainly  marked  with  these  lines.  They  should  at  once 
be  required  to  apply  their  knowledge  of  circular 
measure.  Abundant  practice  should  follow  in  deter- 
mining the  latitude  and  longitude  of  various  places, 


218          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

first  from  the  globe  and  then  from  maps.  Approxi- 
mations to  integral  degrees  should  precede  exact  de- 
terminations involving  minutes  and  seconds.  The 
fact  that  these  lines  are  imaginary  and  that  they  are 
indicated  merely  on  maps  and  globes  and  not  on  the 
earth's  surface  should  be  emphasized. 

Some  thoughtful  members  of  the  class,  will  naturally 
raise  the  very  proper  query  as  to  how  mariners  de- 
termine just  what  imaginary  lines  they  are  on.  It 
may  suffice  to  answer  in  a  general  way  that  this  is 
done  by  means  of  various  instruments  such  as  chro- 
nometer and  sextant  and  observations  of  the  sun  and 
stars.  A  separate  supplementary  lesson  might  be 
given  if  the  pupils  are  sufficiently  mature,  explain- 
ing the  use  of  the  chronometer  in  determining  longi- 
tude and  of  the  altitude  of  the  North  star  in  deter- 
mining latitude.  The  instruments  actually  used  or 
good  pictorial  representations  of  them  would  add  an 
interesting  objective  touch  to  the  lesson. 

Map  study  and  drawing  form  a  good  method  of 
fixing  the  knowledge  thus  acquired.  Let  the  pupils 
draw  the  Greenwich  meridian,  printing  across  it  the 
names  of  the  land  and  water  divisions  through  which 
it  passes;  similarly  for  the  parallel  of  latitude  and 
the  meridian  of  their  home  city.  The  computation 
of  distances  in  miles  north  and  south  on  the  basis 
of  latitude  is  another  good  way  of  fixing  the  facts 
and  relating  them  to  concrete  geography.  The  im- 
possibility— for  the  pupils — of  doing  this  on  the  basis 
of  longitude  differences,  except  on  the  equator,  is  an 
interesting  point  which  could  wisely  be  elicited  from 


GEOGRAPHY  219 

the  pupils  by  questioning.  Further  correlation  with 
direction  could  be  secured  by  calling  attention  to 
the  noon  shadows  of  vertical  objects,  a  fact  with  which 
the  pupils  are  already  acquainted  from  their  first 
study  of  direction. 

Rain. — There  are  various  topics  of  physical  geog- 
raphy which  furnish  excellent  opportunities  for  cor- 
relation with  important  principles  of  physics.  In- 
deed, without  some  such  correlation,  the  geographical 
facts  themselves  can  scarcely  be  understood.  As  most 
elementary  school  courses  are  now  arranged,  the  only 
opportunity  which  a  pupil  has  to  acquire  any  knowl- 
edge of  the  interesting  and  useful  science  of  physics 
is  through  the  implications  of  geography  and  physi- 
ology. The  phenomenon  of  rain  has  been  selected  be- 
cause it  well  illustrates  their  correlation. 

All  weather  phenomena  occupy  a  large  place  in  the 
mind  of  the  general  public.  The  familiar  greeting 
"It's  a  nice  day!"  bears  out  this  fact.  Kain,  snow, 
hail,  mist  are  forms  of  precipitation  which  have  prob- 
ably come  into  the  experience  of  all  elementary  school 
pupils,  and  the  impression  has  been  intensified  fre- 
quently by  a  strong  emotional  tinge.  The  discussion 
of  the  cause  of  rain  will  therefore  naturally  awaken 
their  curiosity.  The  explanation  will  presuppose  a 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  evaporation  and  con- 
densation of  water,  which  presupposition  will  demand 
a  distinct  preparatory  lesson  on  these  physical  aspects 
of  the  topic. 

The  first  fact  to  be  presented  to  the  pupils  is  that 
all  matter  exists  in  three  states,  solid,  liquid,  and 


220         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

gaseous.  Live  and  abundant  questioning  will  elicit 
many  illustrations  from  the  class  so  far  as  the  solid 
and  liquid  states  are  concerned.  Water  will  obviously 
furnish  the  easiest  and,  for  the  purpose  of  the  les- 
son, the  best  substance  for  experiment  and  observa- 
tion. Although  it  may  safely  be  assumed  that  all 
the  pupils  have  observed  the  melting  of  ice  and  the 
boiling  of  water,  an  objective  demonstration  of  these 
transformations  is  most  desirable.  The  vividness  de- 
rived from  perceptual  presentation,  no  matter  how 
familiar  the  phenomenon,  is  always  a  valuable  foun- 
dation. The  teacher  should  secure  a  piece  of  ice  and 
explain  that  she  intends  making  it  first  liquid  and 
then  gaseous  by  the  application  of  heat.  The  name 
steam  or  vapor  should  be  applied  to  the  gaseous 
water  and  caution  should  be  taken  that  the  pupils 
understand  that  vapor  is  really  invisible,  that  the  so- 
called  clouds  of  vapor  seen  escaping  from  the  spout 
of  a  tea-kettle  are  in  reality  numerous  drops  of  water 
held  together  by  the  vapor.  The  term  evaporation 
should  be  applied  to  the  slow  transformation  of  water 
into  vapor,  a  phenomenon  which  the  pupils  have  fre- 
quently observed  in  the  drying  of  streets  after  a 
shower,  the  drying  of  clothes  on  a  wash  line,  etc. 

The  important  point  for  the  pupils  to  grasp  here 
is  that  the  water  is  not  annihilated,  but  that  it 
merely  changes  its  form.  The  truth  of  this  latter 
fact  can  be  easily  proved  in  connection  with  the  ex- 
periment described  above.  The  steam  escaping  from 
the  boiling  water  will  readily  condense  on  a  cool  plate 
held  above  it,  and  the  drops  of  water  should  be 


GEOGRAPHY  221 

shown  to  the  pupils.  They  should  then  be  led  to  ap- 
ply the  word  freezing  to  the  phenomenon  of  changing 
water  into  ice,  and  might  be  allowed  to  guess  for  a 
moment  or  two  as  to  what  name  is  given  to  the  trans- 
formation of  vapor  into  water.  They  already  know 
the  terms  melting,  evaporating,  and  freezing  and  will 
readily  appreciate  the  necessity  of  the  additional 
word.  As  soon  as  they  appreciate  this  necessity,  but 
not  before,  should  they  be  given  the  words  condense 
and  condensation,  which  terms  should  be  plainly  writ- 
ten upon  the  blackboard  and  pronounced  by  the  class. 
The  lesson  could  profitably  conclude  with  an  oral  dis- 
cussion of  various  familiar  instances  of  evaporation 
and  condensation,  such  as  the  collection  of  water  drops 
on  the  outside  of  a  pitcher  of  cold  water,  the  fogging 
of  window  panes  in  winter,  the  drying  up  of  ink  in 
ink-wells,  etc. 

At  the  subsequent  lesson  on  rain,  there  should  first 
be  a  brief  oral  review  of  the  principal  points  of  the 
previous  lesson,  a  review  in  which  the  words  evapora- 
tion and  condensation  are  used  as  much  as  possible. 
The  aim  of  the  lesson  should  then  be  concisely  stated 
as  the  purpose  to  explain  the  cause  of  rain  on  the 
basis  of  the  physical  facts  previously  learned.  This 
explanation  can  now  proceed  largely  in  a  Socratic 
manner.  The  pupils  will  readily  respond  to  such 
questions  as  to  how  the  waters  from  the  surface  of 
streams,  from  rain  soaked  streets,  etc.,  are  taken  up 
from  the  earth,  and  they  will  be  quite  willing  to  be- 
lieve that  the  clouds  they  see  in  the  sky  are  really 
masses  of  vapor  more  or  less  condensed.  This  would 


222          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

be  an  appropriate  time  for  a  lesson  on  cloud  forms, 
the  principal  varieties  being  described  and  pictorially 
represented.  Excellent  lantern  views  of  clouds  are 
easily  procurable  and  would  add  greatly  to  the  inter- 
est of  the  lesson. 

Another  experiment  could  now  be  profitably  under- 
taken to  show  the  cause  of  the  actual  precipitation 
of  rain  through  the  agency  of  further  condensation. 
A  porcelain  pail  of  water  might  be  exhibited  and  the 
pupils  asked  to  observe  the  condensation  of  atmos- 
pheric vapor  on  its  external  surface.  The  water  could 
then  be  rapidly  cooled  by  stirring  in  a  large  num- 
ber of  small  pieces  of  ice.  The  pupils  can  then  ob- 
serve how  the  initial  mist  collects  in  small  drops,  then 
larger  drops  which  finally  become  so  heavy  that  they 
slide  down  the  sides  of  the  pail.  It  could  then  prob- 
ably be  drawn  from  them  that  analogous  conditions 
might  produce  similar  effects  on  the  vapor  masses 
called  clouds.  Rapid  cooling  would  at  once  suggest 
itself  as  a  cause,  and  would  lead  to  the  question  as 
to  the  cause  of  this  cooling,  easily  traceable  to  the 
influence  of  cool  air  currents  or  winds.  No  further 
detail  than  this  is  desirable  for  young  pupils.  The 
relation  of  direction  of  the  wind  to  cloudy,  rainy,  or 
fair  weather  could  readily  be  educed  from  the  class. 

The  time  consumed  in  the  kind  of  lesson  above  out- 
lined might  be  objected  to  by  some  on  the  ground  of 
the  unpractical  nature  of  the  subject  matter.  When 
we  consider,  however,  that  utilitarianism  is  only  one 
of  the  aims  of  education,  and  that  the  only  knowl- 


GEOGRAPHY  22'J 

edge  of  physics  which  the  large  number  of  pupils 
never  reaching  the  high  school  will  ever  receive  is  con- 
tained in  lessons  like  these,  the  character  of  the  work 
seems  to  find  ample  justification. 


CHAPTER  XI 
HISTORY 

The  Nature  of  Elementary  History. — The  require- 
ments of  the  elementary  school  oftentimes  materially 
affect  the  character  of  the  various  subjects  of  the  cur- 
riculum. Neither  geography  nor  grammar,  for  in- 
stance, can  approximate  that  degree  of  exactitude  or 
completeness  which  is  essential  to  their  scientific 
phases.  Nor  would  any  sane  teacher  make  such  an 
attempt.  Precisely  the  same  consideration  applies  to 
elementary  history.  History  as  such  must  conform 
itself  to  the  aims  and  capabilities  of  the  elementary 
school.  What  these  aims  are  will  be  considered  in 
detail  in  the  following  paragraphs.  Here  it  will  suf- 
fice to  mention  that  the  conflict  between  historians  as 
to  what  is  the  true  scientific  historical  standpoint 
need  not  seriously  concern  the  elementary  teacher. 
The  slightest  reflection  will  render  it  obvious  that  his- 
tory to  be  of  any  value  to  young  pupils  must  be  much 
more  than  a  mere  chronicle  of  events.  The  historian 's 
unifying  personality  must  supply  a  substantial  matrix 
for  the  narrative.  Of  course,  the  intrusion  of  such 
personality  must  not  amount  to  partiality  or  bigotry. 
It  will  be  readily  admitted  that  this  unifying  influ- 
ence of  a  personal  viewpoint  in  a  historic  work, 

224 


HISTORY  225 

though  exactly  what  the  elementary  pupil  needs,  be- 
comes a  disadvantage  to  the  post-graduate  student  or 
college  professor.  It  certainly  seems  that  even  the 
latter  can  scarcely  escape  a  viewpoint,  although  he 
may  regard  such  escape  as  a  bounden  duty  of  the  true 
historian.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  intellectual 
maturity  required  for  such  a  mental  attitude  can 
hardly  be  found  in  the  youthful  minds  of  elementary 
school  pupils.  Here  the  point  of  view  and  even  the 
emotional  tinge  must  generally  be  suggested  by  author 
or  teacher. 

All  nations  which  have  had  any  patriotic  instincts 
have  laid  stress  upon  their  own  history.  In  early 
times  these  quasi-historic  records  often  took  the  form 
of  epic  or  ballad  poetry  sung  by  traveling  bards  for 
the  entertainment  or  glorification  of  their  royal  audit- 
ors. They  were  handed  down  by  oral  tradition  and 
in  many  cases  were  inextricably  interwoven  with  their 
religious  beliefs.  The  singing  and  recital  of  these 
poems  undoubtedly  exerted  a  tremendous  inspira- 
tional influence.  Today  every  nation  insists  on  in- 
struction in  its  own  history  for  all  the  pupils  of  the 
common  schools.  As  a  result  of  this  demand,  the  ele- 
mentary history  course  has  rather  generally  assumed 
the  character  of  national  history,  with  only  such 
references  to  foreign  history  as  may  be  deemed  neces- 
sary to  supply  a  background.  The  importance  of 
other  values  of  history  study  than  the  mere  arousing 
of  patriotism  has,  as  we  shall  see,  somewhat  changed 
educational  opinion  in  regard  to  the  importance  of 
foreign  historical  study. 


226         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

"Utilitarian  Value  of  History. — It  is  extremely  dif- 
ficult if  not  impossible  to  draw  sharp  lines  of  demar- 
cation between  the  various  values  of  history.  The 
attempt  to  do  so  is  made  here  merely  for  convenience 
of  treatment.  Surely  it  is  an  essentially  useful  con- 
sequence that  a  man  should  so  love  his  native  country 
that  he  would  be  willing  to  die  in  its  defense.  Yet 
the  general  character  of  this  value  seems  to  make  its 
consideration  more  appropriate  to  a  discussion  of 
morality. 

The  principal  utilitarian  value  attaching  to  the 
study  of  a  nation's  history  is  largely  identical  with 
that  which  is  derived  from  any  kind  of  historical 
study.  We  can  only  hope  to  understand  the  present 
in  the  light  of  the  past.  How  could  anyone  even  ap- 
proximate a  rational  comprehension  of  modern  Eng- 
lish spelling  without  some  knowledge  of  its  historical 
development.  The  application  of  evolution  to  all  de- 
partments of  science  has  effected  a  revolution.  Biol- 
ogy, sociology,  and  even  ethics  have  been  tremend- 
ously influenced  by  modern  methods  of  historical  or 
developmental  research.  Even  such  an  apparently 
simple  tool  as  an  axe  is  best  appreciated  by  a  care- 
ful study  of  its  various  forms  in  past  ages.  Not 
only  does  such  historical  method  enable  us  to  grasp 
most  fully  present  significance,  but,  what  is  still  more 
important,  it  tends  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  what 
the  past  has  absolutely  proved  to  be  erroneous.  This 
point  of  view  has  impressed  educators  so  strongly  that 
many  have  urged  that  wherever  possible  pupils  should 
learn  as  the  race  has  learned — the  method  of  re-dis- 


HISTORY  227 

covery.  There  is  much  to  be  said  in  favor  of  this  view, 
but  its  full  discussion  here  would  carry  us  too  far  from 
the  subject  in  hand. 

The  reasons  discussed  above  in  favor  of  the  histor- 
ical method  in  all  departments  of  learning  apply  with 
especial  force  to  the  study  of  the  succession  of  events 
usually  designated  history.  The  definite  living  of  the 
past  in  the  present  should  be  emphasized  by  the 
teacher  at  every  opportunity.  The  attitude  of  the 
North  and  of  the  South  toward  the  Negro  race,  for 
example,  can  be  adequately  understood  only  in  con- 
nection with  the  entire  history  of  slavery  in  the 
United  States  and  particularly  the  period  of  the  Civil 
War  and  of  Reconstruction.  Again,  in  a  democratic 
nation  such  as  ours,  it  is  vitally  important  that  the 
duties  and  responsibilities  of  citizenship  be  under- 
stood. Universal  suffrage  carries  with  it  the  necessity 
of  a  thorough  grasp  of  the  historical  development  of 
our  political  institutions.  Without  this  historical 
background,  the  highest  type  of  useful  citizenship  is 
practically  impossible.  Especially  when  we  consider 
the  cosmopolitan  character  of  our  population,  and  the 
dangers  attending  unrestricted  immigration,  does  the 
absolute  need  of  such  historical  study  manifest  itself. 
It  is  perhaps  no  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  future 
welfare  of  this  nation  depends  largely  upon  how  the 
school  measures  up  to  its  responsibilities  in  the  devel- 
opment of  a  proper  historical  view  point. 

Conventional  Value. — When  we  say  that  a  man  is 
well-informed,  we  naturally  assume  that  his  knowledge 
of  history,  though  not  necessarily  extensive,  is  com- 


228          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

prehensive.  As  in  geography,  so  in  history,  the  con- 
ventional value  of  any  topic,  other  things  being  equal, 
is  inversely  as  its  remoteness  in  time  and  place. 
Apart  from  the  utilitarian  considerations  discussed  in 
the  preceding  paragraph,  a  man  is  regarded  with  a 
measure  of  contempt  if  lacking  in  knowledge  of  the 
history  of  his  own  city,  state,  or  country.  The  ele- 
mentary school  must  recognize  the  importance  of  this 
fact,  and  for  this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  prevent  any 
of  its  pupils  from  going  into  the  world  ignorant  of 
their  country's  history.  For  a  person  not  to  know 
that  Jefferson  wrote  the  Declaration  of  Independence 
is  certainly  as  reprehensible  as  though  he  were  igno- 
rant, say,  of  the  correct  spelling  of  the  word  disap- 
point. 

The  conventional  value  of  history  moreover  goes  be- 
yond the  mere  narrative  of  the  events  of  one's  own 
country.  The  history  of  other  nations  assumes  im- 
portance not  only  in  so  far  as  they  are  connected  with 
that  of  the  United  States  but  also  to  the  extent  that 
they  are  of  world  wide  significance.  Napoleon  Bona- 
parte, for  example,  is  a  much  greater  figure  than  his 
connection  with  the  sale  of  Louisiana  or  with  the  War 
of  1812  would  lead  the  pupils  to  suppose.  Moses,  Con- 
fucius, Alexander  the  Great,  Julius  Caesar,  Charle- 
magne, William  the  Conqueror  are  but  a  few  examples 
of  historical  personages  of  whom  no  man  with  any  so- 
cial aspirations  whatever  can  afford  to  be  ignorant. 

Much  of  the  conventional  value  of  history,  particu- 
larly of  the  old  world  but  also  to  some  extent  of  our 
own  country,  depends  upon  the  light  it  throws  upon 


HISTORY  229 

literature.  The  correlation  between  history  and  lit- 
erature will  be  fully  discussed  later  in  this  chapter. 
In  this  connection  it  is  sufficient  to  refer  to  the  fact 
that  literature  old  and  new  teems  with  allusions  to 
historical  characters  and  events,  Intelligent  reading 
demands  that  these  allusions  shall  be  readily  un- 
derstood. Legendary  and  mythical  quasi-historical 
events  must  also  find  their  place  in  the  elementary 
course  if  the  conventional  value  of  the  subject  is  to 
be  adequately  recognized. 

Disciplinary  Value.— In  view  of  the  author's  atti- 
tude toward  the  disciplinary  value  of  school  subjects, 
it  may  appear  strange  to  devote  a  section  to  this  topic. 
It  is  perhaps  needful  to  do  so  on  account  of  preva- 
lent opinions  and  misunderstandings.  It  is  fre- 
quently urged  that  history  trains  the  imagination. 
This  is  true  if  the  statement  is  taken  to  mean  noth- 
ing more  than  that  there  are  abundant  opportuni- 
ties in  the  teaching  of  history  to  arouse  and  exercise 
the  pupil's  imaginative  activity.  "We  may  even  go 
further  and  say  that  good  history  teaching  necessarily 
involves  much  constructive  imagery  on  the  part  of  the 
pupils.  History  lessons  are  rendered  both  interest 
ing  and  profitable  to  the  extent  that  verbal  descrip- 
tion or  narration  stirs  the  imaginative  activity  of  the 
pupils  so  as  to  create  vivid  images.  That  such  ac- 
tivity is  necessary  to  the  grasping  of  history  may  be 
wisely  explained  to  older  children  and  in  this  man- 
ner an  ideal  of  attentive  constructive  processes  may 
be  formed,  an  ideal  which  may  readily  carry  over 
into  other  subjects. 


230         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

Again,  when  it  is  said  that  history  trains  judgment 
and  reasoning,  a  similar  interpretation  is  required. 
That  history  is  philosophy  teaching  by  example  is  a 
profound  truth  which  it  would  take  a  philosopher  to 
discern.  The  teacher  of  history  should,  however,  ap- 
preciate the  truth  of  this  maxim  and  endeavor  wher- 
ever possible  to  show  the  pupils  how  clearness  of  judg- 
ment or  foresight  produced  beneficial  effects,  and  how 
lack  of  deliberation  led  to  failure.  History  is  full  of 
texts  for  lessons  of  every  description,  which  if  prop- 
erly employed  may  well  influence  pupils  and  lead 
them  to  the  formation  of  ideals  of  deliberation,  cau- 
tion, consideration  of  motives,  and  the  like.  The  im- 
portant point  to  remember  is  that  these  ideals  can 
scarcely  be  trusted  to  form  themselves,  but  must  be 
diligently  fostered  by  the  live  and  sagacious  teacher. 
The  work  of  the  Constitutional  Convention  in  fram- 
ing the  new  Constitution  on  the  basis  of  the  imperfect 
Articles  of  Confederation  might  wisely  be  studied  in 
considerable  detail,  if  the  teacher  has  in  mind  the  op- 
portunities for  the  kind  of  disciplinary  value  here 
discussed.  Similarly  the  history  of  slavery  and  par- 
ticularly the  compromises  which  attempted  to  avert 
the  impending  crisis  furnish  excellent  material  of  the 
same  character. 

Moral  Value. — There  has  been  considerable  differ- 
ence of  opinion  as  to  just  what  responsibility  the 
school  should  assume  in  regard  to  the  moral  educa- 
tion of  its  pupils,  some  taking  the  ground  that  the 
main  work  of  the  school  consists  of  intellectual  in- 
struction, while  others  maintain  that,  in  addition  to 


HISTORY  231 

the  incidental  unconscious  influence  of  school  life, 
there  should  be  a  definite  course  in  morals.  Which- 
ever of  these  two  views  we  adopt,  there  is  one  moral 
sentiment  whose  nurture  the  state  can  justly  demand 
as  a  sort  of  quid  pro  quo.  This  sentiment  is  patriot- 
ism, with  all  the  implications  of  the  term  including  its 
various  duties  and  responsibilities  as  well  as  the  emo- 
tional state  of  love  of  country. 

The  government  of  any  nation  has  a  perfect  right 
to  demand  of  the  schools  the  inculcation  of  grati- 
tude and  affection  as  a  return  for  the  blessings  of 
organized  rule.  The  heterogeneous  character  of  our 
population  renders  this  demand  conspicuously  im- 
portant in  our  country.  Obviously  no  study  in  the 
curriculum  is  so  well  suited  to  arouse  a  patriotic  atti- 
tude as  history  properly  taught.  The  recital  of  the 
trials  and  sacrifices  of  great  men  and  women  for  the 
good  of  their  country  cannot  but  inspire  the  youth- 
ful pupils  and  arouse  in  them  a  spirit  of  emulation. 
Lincoln's  Gettysburg  address  and  the  tragic  events  of 
his  death,  Washington's  part  in  the  formation  and 
organization  of  the  new  government  are  two  instances 
out  of  the  thousands  which  force  themselves  upon  the 
reverent  attention  of  the  thoughtful  students  of 
United  States  history. 

There  are  some  who  regard  patriotism  as  a  narrow 
virtue,  and  who  maintain  that  the  only  ideal  worth 
striving  for  is  love  of  humanity  as  a  whole.  Though 
theoretically  unassailable  from  the  standpoint  of 
ethics,  this  idealistic  view  is  impracticable  for  those 
who  live  in  a  world  such  as  ours.  It  represents  an 


232         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

ideal  to  which  we  may  strive  to  approximate,  but  one 
which  seems  millennially  distant.  Moreover  we  must 
not  forget  that  the  real  end  of  human  action  does 
not  always  coincide  with  the  immediate  conscious  end. 
Those  deep  feelings  which  sway  us  so  profoundly  in 
the  sympathetic  atmosphere  of  family  and  community 
life  probably  give  an  intensity  to  our  actions  which 
would  be  sadly  wanting  if  the  feelings  were  spread 
out  thinly  over  the  whole  human  race.  Charity  be- 
gins at  home  is  no  narrow  platitude  but  expresses  a 
profound  moral  truth.  Even  rational  self  love  has 
its  place  in  the  world's  moral  organizations.  Thus 
the  seemingly  narrow  affections  of  the  family,  neigh- 
borhood, city,  state,  and  nation  probably  produce  a 
cumulative  moral  effect  which  unconsciously  conserves 
the  spiritual  welfare  of  humanity.  This  does  not 
mean  that  the  people  of  one  part  of  the  world  should 
neglect  their  unfortunate  brothers  in  other  parts. 
The  white  man's  burden  is  doubtless  a  real  burden, 
which  the  moral  white  man  must  shoulder  morally. 
It  is  an  argument,  however,  against  those  who  belittle 
patriotism  as  a  narrow  sentiment.  The  school  can 
legitimately,  through  its  inner  social  life,  demand  a 
spirit  of  loyalty  from  its  pupils,  a  loyalty  which  is  to 
be  regarded  as  but  a  stepping  stone  to  that  larger  loy- 
alty to  country,  viz.,  patriotism. 

In  addition  to  the  definite  inculcation  of  patriot- 
ism, history  has  all  the  moral  value  derivable  from 
the  study  of  biography.  The  lives  of  great  men  and 
women  are  sources  of  inspiration  in  many  ways. 
Washington's  habits  of  truthfulness  and  accuracy  in 


HISTORY  233 

their  causal  relation  to  his  success  as  a  man  are 
deeply  impressive.  So  the  study  of  the  boyhood  of 
our  great  men  as  related  to  their  later  usefulness  is 
of  great  moral  value.  The  invention  of  the  steam- 
boat and  the  laying  of  the  trans-Atlantic  cable  are 
illustrations  of  historical  topics  whose  use  as  items 
of  information  is  insignificant  as  compared  with  their 
inspirational  value.  Elementary  school  children  can 
hardly  be  expected  to  appreciate  the  sociological  forces 
which  are  so  momentous  in  the  development  of  the 
world.  This  furnishes  an  additional  reason  for  em- 
phasizing the  biographical  aspect  of  history,  at  least 
in  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  the  study.  It  should 
probably  remain  largely  biographical  throughout  the 
elementary  course. 

The  pitiless  iconoclasm  of  modern  scientific  meth- 
ods of  research  has  played  havoc  with  many  of  our 
most  cherished  traditions.  History  has  by  no  means 
escaped  this  destructive  influence.  The  true  Ben- 
jamin Franklin  and  the  real  true  Thomas  Jefferson 
have  well  nigh  dislocated  these  two  characters  from 
their  long  hallowed  niches,  leaving  some  measure  of 
scorn  and  contempt  where  once  were  awe  and  rever- 
ence. Similarly,  important  historical  events  such  as 
the  annexation  of  Texas,  the  election  of  Hayes,  etc., 
tend  to  breed,  when  accurately  told,  an  emotion  quite 
the  opposite  of  affectionate  patriotism.  This  brings 
up  the  important  question  as  to  what  should  be  the  at- 
titude of  the  elementary  history  teacher  toward  strict 
historic  accuracy  when  it  militates  against  the  moral 
value  of  the  study.  "We  may  safely  say  that  this  atti- 


234         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

tude  should  not  be  in  any  way  cynical  or  pessimis- 
tic. It  is  perfectly  proper  that  a  child  should  know 
that  men  a»r'e  human  .sharing  in  greater  or  less  degree 
the  weaknesses  of  all  humanity,  and  that  even  our 
own  nation  to  the  extent  that  its  guidance  is  human 
is  far  from  infallible.  The  unholy  joy  which  some 
critics  find  in  gloating  over  the  weak  and  evil  aspects 
of  history  certainly  has  no  place  in  the  class  room. 
Rather  emphasize  the  good  and  lovable  so  that  his- 
torical study  may  ever  possess  an  atmosphere  of  cheer- 
ful optimism.  The  post-graduate  student  of  history 
may  look  sneeringly  on  such  presentation  of  history, 
but  the  elementary  pupil  needs  it  even  though  the 
whole  truth  may  sometimes  be  left  untold. 

The  foregoing  discussion  has  a  definite  bearing  upon 
the  teaching  of  civics  which  is  often  taken  up  in  con- 
nection with  history.  The  ''rottenness"  of  American 
politics  is  a  theme  of  which  critics  both  foreign  and 
domestic  never  seem  to  tire.  A  cynical  indifference 
toward  municipal,  state,  and  national  corruption  has 
too  often  characterized  us  as  a  people.  What  shall 
be  the  teacher's  attitude  in  this  perplexing  situation? 
Schopenhauer's  famous  criticism  of  education  in  gen- 
eral is  directly  applicable  here.  This  pessimist  ar- 
gued, it  will  be  remembered,  that  the  school  failed 
in  that  it  built  up  in  the  pupil's  mind  an  ideal  world 
which  never  did  nor  never  could  exist.  As  a  result, 
when  the  product  of  such  educational  absurdity  faces 
the  actual  world,  he  soon  discovers  that  it  is  essen- 
tially different  from  the  schoolmaster's  world.  He 
either  tries  to  change  it  to  suit  the  ideal,  in  which 


HISTORY  235 

attempt  he  thrusts  his  head  against  a  rock,  or  he  in- 
dulges in  the  painful  operation  of  changing  his  ideas 
to  suit  the  reality.  The  latter  process  is  difficult 
and  discouraging,  and  often  leads  to  an  attitude  dis- 
gustingly cynical  and  exaggerated.  We  may,  of 
course,  make  a  considerable  discount  on  the  opinions 
of  the  man  who  observed  and  recorded  the  fact  that 
while  every  rose  has  a  thorn,  there  is  many  a  thorn 
without  a  rose.  Nevertheless,  pessimism  properly  un- 
derstood is  wholesome  medicine  for  the  educator.  It 
is  pedagogically  wrong  to  give  youth  the  impression 
that  the  theory  of  democracy  underlying  our  govern- 
ment is  practically  and  consistently  carried  out.  Bet- 
ter let  them  understand  the  dangers  and  evils  of  our 
system,  so  that  they  may  be  impressed  with  a  full 
sense  of  their  moral  responsibilities  as  citizens,  and 
thus  be  able  to  take  an  intelligent  part  in  that  im- 
portant business  of  every  American — politics.  Above 
all,  avoid  the  hopeless  cynicism  which  if  not  energet- 
ically combatted  bids  fair  to  undermine  the  greatest 
nation  which  the  world  has  yet  developed. 

The  History  Teacher. — It  goes  without  saying  that 
the  first  qualification  for  a  teacher  of  any  subject  is 
intimate  knowledge  of  that  subject.  This  is  particu- 
larly difficult  where  the  teachers  are  not  specialists, 
a  condition  prevailing  in  the  vast  majority  of  our  ele- 
mentary schools.  A  live  teacher  of  geography,  for 
instance,  should  not  only  be  widely  read,  but  also 
widely  traveled.  This  is  true  to  a  large  extent  of 
the  teacher  of  history  as  well.  The  sabbatical  year 
for  elementary  teachers,  accompanied  by  a  sabbatical 


236         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

salary,  is  a  desideratum  today.  Intelligent  travel  vivi- 
fies historical  knowledge  in  a  way  which  cannot  be  ac- 
complished by  any  amount  of  reading.  In  lieu  of 
travel,  however,  extensive  reading  is  valuable.  Ef- 
fective history  teaching  demands  that  the  teacher  be 
full  of  her  subject.  Only  in  this  way  can  there  be 
secured  for  the  narrative  a  setting  which  will  stir 
the  imaginative  activity  of  the  pupils  and  furnish  the 
necessary  emotional  atmosphere.  The  teacher  of  his- 
tory whose  knowledge  is  bounded  by  the  covers  of 
the  text-book  will  in  all  probability  find  the  work  dull 
for  herself  and  for  her  pupils.  A  fund  of  anecdote 
and  illustration  is  nowhere  so  necessary  as  in  the 
teaching  of  this  subject.  With  a  clear  grasp  of  the 
distinct  values  of  history,  she  will  be  enabled  to  cull 
from  her  vast  store  of  information  descriptions  and 
narratives  which  will  definitely  secure  the  end  to  be 
attained.  Attendance  upon  lectures,  active  reading 
circle  work,  copious  research  will  all  be  found  help- 
ful. The  greatest  argument  for  departmental  work  in 
the  elementary  schools  is  probably  furnished  by  the 
necessary  equipment  of  the  successful  teacher  of  his- 
tory. 

Pre-Text-book  History. — No  history  text-book  is 
needed  in  the  first  two  or  three  years  of  school  life. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  pupil  is  to  remain  igno- 
rant of  his  country's  history.  On  the  contrary,  his- 
tory and  civics  as  well  should  begin  in  the  very  first 
grade  if  not  in  the  kindergarten.  The  narrative  of 
our  nation's  growth  is  intensely  interesting  and  can 
readily  be  told  in  such  simple  form  that  very  young 


HISTORY  237 

children  can  understand  it.  The  inculcation  of  pa- 
triotism is  an  essential  aim  of  this  part  of  the  work. 

In  most  American  cities,  the  anniversaries  of  great 
historical  events  are  made  the  occasion  of  suitable 
school  celebrations.  Frequently  a  school  holiday  is  al- 
lowed, in  which  the  state,  oblivious  of  its  educational 
duties,  often  misses  opportunities  for  impressing  the 
rising  generation  with  high  civic  or  partiotic  ideals. 
Such  holidays  tend  to  degenerate  into  romps  and  jolli- 
fications in  which  the  last  thing  thought  of  is  the  his- 
toric significance  of  the  day.  Recently  there  has  been 
a  marked  tendency  to  bring  about  a  rational  improve- 
ment of  these  occasions. 

The  school,  however,  attempts  to  make  up  for  the 
negligence  of  the  state.  Where  a  holiday  is  granted, 
a  portion  of  the  previous  day  is  usually  set  aside  for 
appropriate  exercises.  On  these  occasions  partiotic 
songs  are  sung  by  the  pupils,  addresses  are  delivered, 
pictures  are  exhibited,  selections  recited  and  essays 
read.  The  last  mentioned  feature  is  frequently  ill- 
advised.  Care  should  be  taken  that  the  essay  is  of 
an  appealing  and  intelligible  character,  and  if  a  pupil 
is  selected  to  read  it,  there  must  be  no  doubt  that  it 
will  be  read  clearly  and  impressively.  This  is  an  ex- 
tremely important  consideration  as  dulness  in  such 
exercises  is  fatal.  Moreover,  the  program  must  be 
sufficiently  varied  and  not  too  long.  Better  send  the 
pupils  home  wishing  they  could  have  had  more  than 
glutted  with  an  over-sufficiency.  If  a  speaker  is  in- 
vited to  address  the  young  children,  it  is  hot  enough 
that  he  or  she  be  a  prominent  citizen  of  the  commu- 


238         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

nity.  The  ability  to  talk  entertainingly  to  young 
pupils  is  the  sine  qua  non.  Even  governors  and 
mayors,  not  to  mention  couneilmen  and  school  direc- 
tors, are  cften  sadly  deficient  in  this  power.  The 
principal  or  one  of  the  teachers  in  the  school  is  often 
a  far  happier  selection  than  persons  of  much  greater 
prominence. 

Using  historic  anniversaries  in  the  manner  here  in- 
dicated has  the  advantage  of  providing  what  Her- 
bartians  term  a  core  of  concentration.  The  historic 
events  are  associated  with  the  interesting  and  novel 
features  of  the  celebration,  and  thus  tend  to  be  more 
firmly  organized.  For  young  children  especially,  one 
of  the  most  impressive  features  of  such  exercises 
is  dramatic  representation.  The  dramatic  instinct  is 
strong  in  the  young,  and  there  could  be  no  more  in- 
teresting way  of  presenting  historical  events  than  by 
having  the  pupils  themselves,  and  as  many  of  them  as 
possible,  participate  in  the  exercises.  The  alert 
leacher  will  find  it  extremely  interesting  to  devise 
such  dramatic  features  and  will  be  amply  rewarded 
for  her  trouble  by  the  intellectual  as  well  as  emotional 
effects  upon  her  pupils. 

Historical  narratives,  particularly  those  dealing  with 
biography,  should  form  a  considerable  part  of  the 
subject  matter  of  oral  and  written  language.  No  set 
forms  should  be  required,  but  the  pupil  should  be  en- 
couraged to  weave  the  narrative  in  an  original  way. 
Formal  demands  in  this  work  are  deadening.  It  is 
not  so  much  accurate  grasp  of  historic  details  as  it  is 
emotional  and  intelligent  appreciation  which  the 


HISTORY  239 

teacher  should  strive  to  develop.  The  committing  of 
poetical  selections  of  real  literary  merit  and  suffi- 
ciently easy  of  comprehension  is  a  valuable  form  of 
pre-text-book  history.  Emerson's  Concord  Hymn 
is  a  good  example.  In  such  memorizing  work,  it  is  by 
no  means  necessary  that  every  word  should  be  thor- 
oughly understood.  The  process  of  learning  words  is 
often  analogous  to  the  placing  of  labels  on  bottles 
whose  contents  time  alone  will  dissolve  or  crystal- 
lize. 

History  and  Literature. — The  correlation  between  his- 
tory and  literature  implied  in  the  latter  part  of  the 
preceding  paragraph  is  of  far-reaching  importance  in 
the  elementary  school.  It  is  very  hard  to  determine 
at  times  whether  a  certain  work  should  be  classed  as 
history  or  as  literature.  Even  defining  literature 
strictly  as  that  form  of  writing  whose  main  purpose 
is  to  give  pleasure,  it  would  seem  inaccurate  to  ex- 
clude such  works  as,  e.  g.,  Fiske's  delightful  historical 
studies.  Any  history  which  purports  to  be  more  than 
mere  annals  perforce  has  a  literary  aspect. 

Not  only  in  the  pre-text-book  grades,  but  throughout 
the  course  should  poetry  and  song  form  a  part  of  the 
work  in  history.  The  Greeks  may  have  had  a  keener 
appreciation  of  music  than  is  given  to  us  moderns, 
but  we  today  are  forced  to  share  with  them  the  deep 
regard  for  the  moral  influence  of  song.  There  is 
scarcely  anything  so  inspiring  as  a  group  of  children 
singing  the  national  airs  of  their  country.  We  do 
not  deceive  ourselves  when  we  attribute  the  rousing 
of  patriotic  fervor  to  indulgence  in  such  exercises, 


240  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

and  not  the  least  of  their  by-products  is  the  sense  of 
social  solidarity  which  means  so  much  for  later 
united  action.  The  Marseillaise  was  by  no  means  a 
negligible  factor  of  the  French  Revolution.  The  texts 
of  the  songs  should  be  thoroughly  explained  to  the 
pupils,  not  only  to  secure  historic  correlation,  but  to 
ensure  a  deeper  appreciation  of  their  sentiment.  Un- 
sung poetry  has  not  nearly  the  same  sentimental  value 
as  the  song,  but  its  correlative  value  is  not  to  be  dis- 
regarded. It  would  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  collate 
poetry  of  historical  significance  adapted  to  the  work 
of  the  grade.  Excellent  collections  of  this  character 
have  doubtless  been  made  in  various  places,  and 
teachers  should  push  the  good  work  along  by  letting 
others  know  what  they  have  achieved.  Longfellow's 
Skeleton  in  Armor,  for  example,  is  splendid  literary 
work  for  a  class  studying  the  Norse  voyages.  Holmes 's 
Old  Ironsides  is  equally  as  effective  in  connection  with 
the  War  of  1812.  The  intrinsic  literary  value  of  such 
poetry  amply  justifies  its  use  as  reading  material  apart 
from  any  other  consideration. 

In  the  field  of  prose  literature,  there  is  abundant 
opportunity  for  historical  correlation,  although  its 
sentimental  or  emotional  value  is  probably  not  so 
great  as  that  of  poetry.  The  writings  of  Prescott, 
Parkman,  and  Fiske  may  profitably  be  read  to  elemen- 
tary pupils.  The  wise  teacher  will,  of  course,  mark 
her  copies  of  these  books  in  advance  so  that  the  selec- 
tions read  may  be  in  every  way  suitable.  Older  pupils 
should  be  encouraged  to  read  these  works  for  them- 
selves, and  they  should  certainly  be  upon  the  shelves 


HISTORY  241 

of  every  well  equipped  school  library.  The  historical 
novel  is  also  a  rich  field  for  literary  correlation.  Such 
novels  are  of  course  good,  bad,  and  indifferent,  and  the 
teacher  must  guide  the  pupils  to  a  proper  selection. 
What  this  kind  of  literature  lacks  in  historic  ac- 
curacy, it  makes  up  for  in  emotional  interest.  How 
many  men  and  women  of  today  are  indebted  to  Dumas, 
for  example,  for  their  knowledge  of  the  interesting 
period  of  French  history  treated  by  this  picturesque 
novelist !  The  Crisis  and  The  Fair  God  may  be  men- 
tioned as  the  kind  of  historic  novel  which  should  ap- 
peal to  the  older  student  of  history  in  the  elementary 
school. 

Objective  Methods. — The  perceptual  vividness  given 
by  actual  observation  is  almost  as  essential  to  history 
as  to  geography,  but  somewhat  more  difficult  to  secure. 
Geography  is  descriptive  of  the  world  as  it  is,  and 
so  all  its  factors  are  more  or  less  accessible.  History 
deals  almost  entirely  with  the  past  which  must  per- 
force be  imaged  rather  than  observed.  It  is  impor- 
tant, therefore,  to  remember  the  intensifying  character 
of  the  perceptive  factor  in  imagery.  The  actual 
ground  on  which  a  battle  was  fought,  the  inkstand 
used  in  signing  the  Declaration  of  Independence,  the 
flag  that  was  captured  at  Yorktown,  etc.,  give  a  rich 
emotional  basis  for  realizing  the  past.  The  reverent 
guardianship  of  the  Liberty  Bell  in  the  Philadelphia 
State  House  is  amply  justified  from  educational  if 
from  no  other  considerations. 

The  teacher  of  history  should  familiarize  herself 
with  various  points  of  historic  interest  accessible  to  the 


242         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

pupils  of  her  community.  Excursions  to  such  places 
should  form  a  regular  part  of  the  school  work.  The 
cautions  and  directions  in  regard  to  geographical  ex- 
cursions apply  with  equal  force  here.  An  important 
difference,  however,  is  found  in  the  reverential  atti- 
tude which  should  characterize  the  historical  trip.  It 
should  have  little  if  any  of  the  character  of  a  jaunt  or 
picnic.  Whatever  jollity  may  intrude  itself  upon  the 
occasion  should  be  kept  separate  and  distinct  from  its 
historical  bearings. 

Further  objective  assistance  can  be  rendered  the 
imaginative  activity  of  the  pupils  by  the  use  of  lan- 
tern views  and  other  pictorial  representations.  A 
central  library  of  such  helps  should  be  accessible  to  all 
teachers,  and  they  should  be  encouraged  to  use  them. 
The  teacher  herself  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  strik- 
ing or  appropriate  prints  which  should  form  part  of 
her  material  equipment. 

Though  not  strictly  or  entirely  an  objective  method, 
the  use  of  original  sources  in  teaching  elementary  his- 
tory has  an  analogous  effect  in  the  intensifying  of 
pupils'  impressions.  The  fact  of  secession,  for  ex- 
ample, becomes  real  when  we  see  a  copy  of  the  original 
Charleston  newspaper  with  its  glaring  head  lines 
announcing  the  revolutionary  action  of  the  South 
Carolina  legislature.  Some  time  ago  I  saw  a  program 
of  the  theatrical  performance  during  which  Lincoln 
met  his  doom.  On  it  was  the  announcement  that  the 
President  would  occupy  a  box  that  evening.  The  real- 
ization of  that  tragic  circumstance  was  borne  more 
deeply  upon  my  mind  than  ever  before.  Original 


HISTORY  243 

sources  of  this  kind  have  all  the  objective  force  of 
swords,  chairs,  clothes,  etc.,  mentioned  in  the  preced- 
ing paragraphs.  The  actual  manuscript  journals  of 
the  voyages  of  Columbus  must  vividly  impress  him  who 
is  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  a  view  of  them. 

Where  the  original  is  inaccessible  or  would  be  un- 
intelligible to  the  ordinary  student,  facsimiles  or 
printed  reproductions  are  valuable.  The  sagas  of  Lief 
or  the  narrations  of  Marco  Polo  furnish  interesting 
and  helpful  historical  material.  Of  course,  the  ele- 
mentary teacher's  attitude  toward  such  historical 
sources  is  quite  different  from  that  of  the  historian. 
Still  less  can  the  pupil  be  expected  to  examine  and 
analyze  such  sources  with  critical  acumen.  Their 
place  in  the  course  is  justified  almost  entirely  by  their 
vivifying  influence.  Various  excellent  collections  of 
source  material  have  been  made  which  the  history 
teacher  could  very  profitably  peruse.  Hart 's  splendid 
American  History  Told  ~by  Contemporaries  is  one  of 
the  best  of  these  historic  anthologies.  Mary  Sheldon 
Barnes  has  attempted,  and  the  result  has  been  quite 
successful,  to  build  an  elementary  text-book  out  of 
original  sources.  The  pointed  and  realistic  excerpts 
have  been  pieced  together  and  connected  by  just 
enough  commentary  to  give  them  an  excellent  peda- 
gogic setting.  I  do  not  know  of  any  other  author 
who  has  carried  out  this  idea  so  consistently.  It  is 
difficult  to  conceive  of  any  text  intended  for  elemen- 
tary pupils  which  would  be  more  realistic  and  enter- 
taining. 

Organization  of  Historical  Facts, — The  proper  com- 


244         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

prehension  of  the  facts  of  history  demands  consider- 
able mental  organization  of  the  pupil's  knowledge. 
The  events  of  the  narrative  must  not  stand  out  sepa- 
rately but  should  be  grasped  as  links  of  a  logical  chain 
of  causes  and  effects.  This  end  can  be  secured  to  some 
extent  by  the  use  of  the  Socratic  method.  Question  the 
pupils  as  to  what  they  think  would  be  the  natural 
outcome  of  a  certain  event,  e.  g.,  the  Kansas-Nebraska 
bill,  making  them  state  their  reasons.  Then  compare 
their  answers  with  the  actual  historic  sequence.  Lead 
them  to  see  where  their  reasoning  was  faulty  or  their 
premises  inadequate  or  defective.  Historical  knowl- 
edge gained  in  this  way  will  be  richer  and  more  lasting. 
Or  reverse  the  process  and  institute  a  regressive 
search  for  the  causes  of  a  given  event,  e.  g.,  the  failure 
of  the  Spanish  to  compete  with  the  English  in  the 
colonization  of  America.  A  comparison  between 
Sunday  observance  in  New  England  and  in  the  Middle 
West,  the  pupils  tracing  the  causes  of  the  difference, 
is  another  illustration  of  the  kind  of  work  here  sug- 
gested. The  mental  organization  derived  from  such 
exercises  means  real  education  in  a  sense  very  dif- 
ferent from  that  supposed  to  attach  to  the  ability  to 
recite  glibly  a  series  of  events. 

The  step  of  preparation  is  exceedingly  important 
in  connection  with  the  proper  organization  of  his- 
torical knowledge.  The  facts  of  previous  lessons, 
which  furnish  the  causal  considerations  for  the  new 
lesson,  must  be  intensified  by  the  influence  of  recency. 
The  definite  statement  of  the  aim  also  becoms  a  vital 
factor  in  mental  organization.  It  provides  a  schema 


HISTORY  245 

or  plan  in  which  the  new  work  may  find  its  appro- 
priate place.  Teachers  should  pay  especial  attention 
to  this  aspect  of  their  preparatory  lesson.  Its  neglect 
means  failure.  Not  the  least  of  the  values  of  the  state- 
ment of  the  aim  is  that  it  necessitates  definite  plan- 
ning by  the  teacher. 

Mental  organization  may  be  furthered  by  the  use  of 
blackboard  outlines  or  syllabi.  It  is  a  great  aid  to  the 
pupils'  grasp  of  a  mass  of  details  to  have  ever  present 
in  graphic  form  with  their  relationship  indicated  the 
salient  points  of  a  lesson.  Modern  educators  appre- 
ciate the  value  of  such  perceptual  frame-work  and 
often  precede  their  discourse  by  printed  or  mimeo- 
graphed syllabi  distributed  among  the  audience.  The 
blackboard  outlines  for  class  work  are  most  effective 
when  they  have  been  worked  out  by  teacher  and  pupils 
together. 

The  reviews  which  most  teachers  find  necessary  to 
insure  the  retention  of  history  afford  splendid  oppor- 
tunity for  organizing  the  pupils'  knowledge.  A  re- 
view which  simply  re-states  the  facts  may  claim  the  as- 
sociative force  of  repetition,  but  its  lack  of  intensity 
and  emotional  dulness  make  it  a  weariness  to  the  spirit 
of  both  teacher  and  pupil.  In  review,  the  subject 
matter  should  be  treated  in  fresh  guise.  Where  the 
first  study  of  a  given  period  follows  a  chronological 
sequence,  its  review  should  be  largely  topical.  As  a 
result,  there  is  secured  a  certain  novelty  of  presenta- 
tion as  well  as  apperceptive  systematization.  A  splen- 
did way  of  unifying  the  elementary  pupil 's  knowledge 
of  United  States  history  is  to  permit  him  to  spend  the 


246          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

last  term  of  his  course  in  a  complete  review  of  the  sub- 
ject based  on  important  topics.  Particularly  valuable 
is  such  a  topical  resume  if,  as  is  often  the  case,  the 
study  of  United  States  history  is  concluded  in  the 
elementary  school.  Such  topics  as  Progress  of  Science 
and  Art,  Political  History,  Growth  in  Territory  and 
Population,  etc.,  are  useful  as  bases  for  apperceptive 
systems  of  a  comprehensive  character.1  The  pupil 
should,  so  far  as  possible,  collate  the  related  facts  for 
himself,  but  the  comparatively  immature  minds  of 
elementary  school  children  will  need,  for  the  proper 
management  of  good  topical  reviews,  much  help  from 
teacher  and  text-book.  Blackboard  outlines  in  con- 
nection with  this  work  will  be  found  of  even  greater 
value  than  in  the  presentation  as  discussed  in  the 
previous  paragraph. 

Type  Method. — So  great  is  the  amount  of  detail 
which  presses  for  consideration  in  the  teaching  of  his- 
tory, that  the  teacher  is  forced  to  give  much  thought 
and  careful  deliberation  to  the  planning  of  her  work. 
What  may  safely  be  omitted  becomes  a  most  important 
question.  A  solution  of  this  vexing  problem,  and  one 
that  has  excellent  psychological  justification,  is  found 
in  the  use  of  the  type  method.  This  method  has  been 
described  in  Chapter  III.  and  illustrated  in  its  appli- 
cation to  geography  in  Chapter  VII.  As  employed  in 
connection  with  history,  its  purpose  is  not  so  much 
the  formation  of  concepts  as  it  is  the  presentation  of 

1  An  attempt  to  work  out  a  text  book  along  these  lines  has 
been  made  in  A  Brief  Topical  Survey  of  United  States  History 
by  Dr.  Oliver  P.  Cornman  and  the  author. 


HISTORY  247 

a  complete  descriptive  picture  of  an  historical  proce- 
dure, a  picture  which  can  be  mentally  recalled  and 
modified  to  suit  other  cases.  Early  voyages  of  dis- 
covery and  exploration,  for  instance,  had  many  points 
of  resemblance.  They  were  all  characterized  by  the 
uncertainties  and  dangers  of  wind  propelled  vessels, 
the  absence  of  modern  instruments  of  navigation,  ig- 
norance of  geographical  facts  and  conditions,  hard- 
ships due  to  improper  food  and  water,  etc.  On  the 
side  of  those  who  undertook  the  voyages,  there  was 
likewise  a  great  similarity  of  motives: —  discovery  of 
new  routes,  commercial  advantages,  desire  for  con- 
quest, love  of  adventure,  geographical  curiosity,  desire 
for  wealth,  and  religious  zeal.  Of  course  these  mo- 
tives entered  in  varying  degrees  as  actuating  factors  of 
specific  voyages,  and  never  were  all  combined  in  any 
particular  case.  The  first  voyage  of  Columbus,  the 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe  by  Magellan 's  fleet,  and 
the  explorations  by  Marquette  and  La  Salle  could  ad- 
vantageously be  taught  in  great  detail,  as  they  would 
furnish  ample  type  lessons..  Original  sources,  used  in 
the  manner  above  indicated,  should  be  employed  .to 
vivify  the  impressions.  The  graphic  presentation  of 
these  few  voyages  would  permit  considerable  brevity 
in  the  treatment  of  the  others.  For  the  latter  the 
statement  of  motives  and  results  would  probably  be 
sufficient,  always,  however,  with  the  assurance  that 
the  pupils  hold  in  mind  the  pictorial  and  emotional 
aspects  of  the  type  presentations.  The  same  method 
of  procedure  is  applicable  to  the  teaching  of  a  battle. 
It  is  probably  essential  to  the  realistic  comprehension 


248         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

of  history  that  the  pupils  should  have  some  definite 
idea  of  warfare.  If  the  school  is  situated  in  easy  ex- 
cursion distance  of  an  important  battle  field,  such  as 
Gettysburg,  for  instance,  a  well-planned  trip  to  the 
scene  of  action  would  certainly  be  advisable.  The 
plan  of  campaign,  the  movements  of  the  armies,  the 
field  tactics  of  the  generals,  etc.,  should  receive  ample 
detailed  treatment,  maps,  charts,  and  pictures  adding 
objective  intensification.  Such  thorough-going  treat- 
ment of  one  battle  would  probably  suffice  as  a  type  les- 
son. Similarly  with  the  numerous  treaties  which  have 
been  made  in  the  course  of  our  nation's  history.  ,  It 
is  perhaps  desirable  that  the  exact  procedure  in  treaty 
making  should  be  .known  to  the  older  elementary  pu- 
pils. The  Oregon  Boundary  Treaty  would  furnish  a 
good  topic  for  a  type  lesson,  after  which  all  other 
treaties  studied  could  be  taken  merely  in  connection 
with  the  disputes  or  purposes  causing  them. 

The  History  Text-Book — In  the  fourth  school  year 
or  perhaps  earlier  a  good  text-book  will  be  found  help- 
ful. The  biographic  treatment  should  be  adhered  to, 
and  the  style  should  be  simple,  picturesque,  and  ap- 
pealing. Such  a  text  should  not  be  used  for  purposes 
of  study,  but  rather  for  silent  or  oral  reading  after 
the  lesson  has  been  taught.  In  other  words,  the  text- 
book in  the  early  grades  should  become  a  sort  of  sup- 
plementary reader.  Its  purpose  is  to  provide  for  the 
interesting  fixing  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  and  for 
its  fuller  organization.  No  actual  study  or  memoriz- 
ing of  any  portion  of  the  text  is  desirable,  unless  the 
book  contain  some  poetical  selections  which  it  is  well 


HISTORY  249 

for  the  pupil  to  commit  to  memory.  History  texts  for 
young  children  should  provide  well  selected  material 
of  this  character. 

As  the  pupil  advances  in  the  grades,  the  text-book 
should  have  less  the  character  of  a  reader  and  become 
more  of  a  study  book.  It  should,  however,  remain 
largely  supplementary  to  the  work  of  the  teacher. 
That  is,  it  should  follow  the  various  forms  of  presenta- 
tion outlined  above,  objective  teaching,  type  method, 
etc.  But  the  older  pupil  should  be  required  to  do 
more  than  merely  read  the  text.  Definite  assignments 
should  be  made  for  home  and  school  study.  Linking 
the  teacher 's  presentation  and  the  pupil 's  study,  there 
might  well  come  a  suggestive  outline  consisting  per- 
haps entirely  of  questions,  which  would  serve  to  give 
much-needed  definiteness  to  the  work  of  the  pupils. 
The  lack  of  such  definiteness,  particularly  in  a  de- 
scriptive subject  like  history,  is  the  chief  evil  of  much 
of  our  present  day  study  assignments.  Requiring  the 
pupil  to  fill  in  the  outline  or  to  answer  its  questions 
in  writing  is  a  convenient  way  of  insuring  and  testing 
the  study  work. 

Certainly  in  the  high  school  and  perhaps  in  the 
highest  elementary  grades  assignments  may  sometimes 
be  made  of  portions  of  the  text  not  previously  taught. 
The  teaching  in  this  case  is  supplementary  and  usually 
partakes  of  the  nature  of  oral  discussion  or  testing 
recitation.  Such  work,  cautiously  and  wisely  done,  has 
great  value.  It  enables  the  pupil  to  dig  out  informa- 
tion from  a  text  through  his  own  self-activity.  He 
may  often  wish  to  instruct  himself  in  this  manner  in 


250   .       INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

after  life.  It  is  eminently  proper  that  the  school 
should  attempt  to  stand  the  pupil  upon  his  own  feet, 
and  that  the  good  teacher  should,  as  Dr.  Brumbaugh 
has  expressed  it,  become  '  *  increasingly  unnecessary. ' ' 
The  study  of  an  untaught  text,  however,  demands  more 
definiteness  than  is  required  by  supplementary  study. 
The  pupils  should  be  taught  how  to  study,  should 
be  required  to  make  abstracts  and  outlines,  and  clearly 
shown  the  importance  of  discriminating  between  the 
essentials  and  the  non-essentials. 

Historical  Map  Drawing. — As  before  indicated,  there 
are  numerous  opportunities  for  correlation  between 
history  and  geography.  Every  map  that  is  drawn  in 
connection  with  historical  study  becomes  in  a  degree 
a  fixing  lesson  in  geography  as  well.  The  habit  of 
close  observation  which  was  referred  to  as  an  impor- 
tant value  of  map  drawing  in  the  chapter  on  geogra- 
phy applies  here  with  equal  force.  In  addition  to 
contour,  locations,  etc.,  the  graphic  representation  of 
historical  facts,  scrutinized  closely  enough  to  be  re- 
produced by  the  pupils,  forms  an  excellent  method  of 
concentrating  attention. 

When  Lessing,  in  the  Laocoon,  made  his  famous  dis- 
tinction between  poetry  and  painting,  the  former  hav- 
ing an  essentially  narrative  and  the  latter  an  essen- 
tially descriptive  character,  he  did  not  give  sufficient 
attention  to  the  unifying  power  of  pictorial  represen- 
tation. Of  course  a  narrative  is  essentially  serial, 
events  following  one  another  in  logical  or  chrono- 
logical sequence.  To  understand  the  interdependence 
of  narrative  events,  however,  it  is  necessary  to  grasp 


HISTORY  251 

them  more  or  less  simultaneously.  This  the  historical 
map  enables  us  to  do.  A  map,  for  instance,  of  the 
various  acquisitions  of  territory  by  the  United  States 
unifies  this  narrative  series  in  an  emphatic  manner. 
Similarly  a  map  or  chart  showing  the  western  move- 
ment of  the  center  of  population  gives  simultaneity 
and  organization  to  the  general  facts.  Similar  con- 
siderations justify  the  extensive  use  of  curves  in  ex- 
hibiting various  dynamic  phenomena.  Again,  much 
of  history  is  descriptive,  and  here  the  graphic  repre- 
sentation of  map  or  drawing  is  particularly  desirable. 
The  study  of  a  map  showing  the  various  European 
possessions  in  North  America  at  the  close  of  the  French 
and  Indian  War  is  by  far  the  best  way  of  acquiring 
a  knowledge  of  the  circumstances. 

Since  the  purpose  of  historical  map  drawing  and 
study  is  primarily  historical  and  in  but  a  slight  degree 
geographical,  extensive  use  should  be  made  of  out- 
line maps.  The  drawing  of  contours,  rivers,  etc.,  is 
indeed  somewhat  distracting.  Excellent  outline  maps 
for  historical  purposes  are  now  procurable  at  very 
low  prices.  There  should  be  in  every  school  an  abun- 
dant supply  available  for  every  teacher  of  history. 

The  Teaching  of  Wars, — This  is  an  important  ele- 
ment of  historical  study  which,  on  account  of  its 
unique  position,  has  been  reserved  for  separate  treat- 
ment. Of  course,  the  history  of  our  country  would  be 
very  inadequately  understood  if  the  important  con- 
sideration of  its  wars  was  omitted.  This  subject  has, 
very  naturally  and  properly,  an  appealing  attractive- 
ness to  young  and  old.  The  fighting  instinct  is  uni- 


252          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

versal.  Every  inch  of  progress  of  which  our  civiliza- 
tion boasts  has  been  dearly  paid  for  in  blood.  The 
undeniable  disparity  between  individual  and  national 
morality  complicates  the  teaching  of  this  subject, 
especially  when  we  have  regard  for  the  moral  value 
of  history.  The  high  ethical  doctrine  of  the  non-re- 
sistance of  evil  is  difficult  to  reconcile  with  our  past 
and  present  attitude  toward  national  customs  and 
ideals.  The  child  is  early  trained  to  refrain  from 
nails,  teeth  and  fists  in  the  settlement  of  disputes,  and 
still  the  world  looks  on  complacently  enough  while  the 
great  nations  increase  their  armaments.  Whatever  the 
theoretic  attitude  may  be,  practically  we  seem  very 
far  removed  from  universal  disarmament.  It  is  one 
of  those  decisions  demanding  a  unanimous  vote.  The 
so-called  yellow  peril  seems  much  more  than  a  nursery 
bug-a-boo,  and  will  doubtless  increase  the  white  man's 
burden  for  decades  if  not  centuries,  a  burden  which 
seems  to  demand  for  its  adequate  support,  shells  and 
bullets,  floating  and  flying  forts. 

There  is,  of  course,  no  doubt  that  peaceful  arbitra- 
tion represents  an  ideal  to  which  all  should  strive 
to  approximate,  and  the  last  half-century  has  wit- 
nessed wonderful  strides  in  this  direction.  The  moral 
obligation  of  the  school  seems  plain.  The  impression- 
able mind  of  the  elementary  pupil  should  be  trained  to 
loathe  the  hellishness  of  modern  warfare.  The  wars 
which  have  been  averted  in  our  own  history  through 
arbitration  and  treaty  should  be  used  as  moral  texts, 
so  that  the  men  and  women  of  the  next  generation 
may  further  the  work  of  peace.  The  Hague  Peace 


HISTORY  253 

Conference  and  its  results  should  be  made  subjects 
of  special  study.  With  this  aim  in  view,  it  would 
seem  desirable  to  teach  wars  in  such  a  way  that  their 
horror  should  receive  emphasis. 

There  is,  however,  another  point  of  view  which  may 
not  be  safely  disregarded.  Warfare  has  not  yet  been 
eliminated,  and  this  desirable  consummation  will  prob- 
ably not  be  attained  in  the  near  future.  The  demands 
of  patriotism  not  only  require  that  we  reverence  those 
who  sacrificed  their  lives  for  their  country,  but  also 
that  the  boys  of  today  who  will  be  the  men  of  to- 
morrow must  be  willing,  when  the  occasion  arises,  to 
make  similar  sacrifices.  It  would  be  a  mistake  to 
create  such  a  loathing  of  war  that  we  should  be  in 
danger  of  developing  a  race  of  cowards.  The  wise  and 
patriotic  teacher  must  make  a  compromise  between 
these  two  opposite  points  of  view.  While  giving  due 
prominence  to  the  moral  aspects  of  peaceful  arbitra- 
tion, she  must  not  overlook  the  practical  side  of  the 
inculcation  of  a  devout  patriotism. 

Current  Events. — Not  a  day  passes  but  what  some 
interesting  and  record-worthy  event  transpires.  Peri- 
odical literature  of  all  descriptions  attempts  to  ac- 
quaint the  reading  public  with  up-to-date  news  of 
science,  art,  literature,  history,  etc.,  so  that  no  im- 
portant happening  should  be  withheld  for  a  longer 
period  than  a  month.  The  newspaper  endeavors  to 
publish  everything  of  a  novel  or  striking  character  so 
promptly  that  chagrin  is  felt  if  even  an  hour's  delay 
intervenes  between  the  event  and  its  publication. 

The  live  teacher  of  history  must  keep  in  close  touch 


254          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

with  current  events.  In  some  schools,  teachers  have 
adopted  the  plan  of  meeting  once  a  week  for  the  discus- 
sion of  the  week's  news  with  special  reference  to  that 
portion  of  it  which  may  be  utilized  in  the  class-room. 
Historic  news  of  such  a  character  would  naturally  be 
taught  best  in  its  proper  connection.  The  habit  of 
treating  current  events,  including  all  sorts  of  happen- 
ings, scientific,  geographical,  historical,  etc.,  as  a  kind 
of  distinct  curricular  subject  is  not  to  be  recommended. 
They  all  may,  in  a  sense,  be  regarded  as  material  for 
oral  and  written  language  exercises,  but  due  considera- 
tion of  their  content  would  demand  the  development 
of  appropriate  apperceptive  systems.  Of  course, 
where  the  events  are  of  far-reaching  importance  arid 
great  conventional  value  the  school  principal  may 
feel  it  desirable  to  give  the  information  at  once  to  all 
the  pupils.  This  may  be  impressively  done  in  connec- 
tion with  the  opening  exercises.  What  is  objected  to 
here  is  the  method  of  purveying  small  pieces  of  un- 
related news  day  after  day,  producing,  as  it  were,  a 
kind  of  intellectual  hash. 

In  so  far  as  a  knowledge  of  current  events  is  to  be 
obtained  by  the  pupils  themselves,  consideration  must 
be  had  for  their  age.  The  modern  newspaper,  with 
its  commercial  instinct  so  often  outweighing  ethical 
and  aesthetic  ideals,  is  regarded  by  many  as  a  danger- 
ous kind  of  reading  material  for  children.  The  racy 
and  often  sensational  character  of  the  news  and  com- 
ments, while  it  may  reflect  the  demands  of  public 
taste,  is  frequently  quite  the  opposite  of  uplifting. 
The  vividness  of  impression  which  was  discussed  in 


HISTORY  255 

connection  with  the  educational  value  of  original 
source  study  applies  with  particular  force  to  news- 
paper reading.  Perhaps  the  teacher  can  make  a  com- 
promise so  as  to  avoid  the  moral  danger  and  still 
secure  the  educational  advantages.  A  solution  may 
be  found  in  the  fact  that  there  are  newspapers  and 
newspapers,  and  it  is  a  legitimate  function  of  the 
teacher  to  give  the  pupils  a  guiding  principle  of 
selection.  This  is  as  much  her  duty  as  it  is  for  her 
to  attempt  to  direct  them  to  wholesome  food,  pure 
air,  good  books,  and  proper  theatrical  performances. 
Moreover,  giving  the  pupils  a  plan  or  method  of  read- 
ing a  newspaper  is  by  no  means  an  unimportant  part 
of  elementary  education. 


CHAPTER  XII 
PHYSIOLOGY 

What  It  Is. — I  have  used  the  term  Physiology  as 
the  title  of  this  chapter  in  deference  to  prevalent  cus- 
tom. Neither  in  school  courses  nor  in  this  discussion 
is  the  subject  limited  to  bodily  functioning  but  in- 
cludes anatomy  and  hygiene  as  well.  Human  biology 
might  be  a  happier  designation  for  this  work,  al- 
though it  sounds  too  profound  and  comprehensive  for 
the  name  of  an  elementary  school  subject.  The  word 
hygiene  alone  is  sometimes  used,  and  although  it  em- 
phasizes what  many  regard  as  the  justification  of  the 
whole  subject  in  the  elementary  curriculum,  it  is  too 
narrow  when  we  consider  the  entire  aim  of  the  course. 
This  branch  has  a  peculiar  position  in  the  elementary 
courses  of  many  states,  its  study  being  demanded  of 
the  schools  by  legislative  enactment. 

Utilitarian  Value. — There  is  nothing  traditional 
about  the  subject-matter  nor  the  method  of  teaching 
physiology  in  the  elementary  schools.  Unlike  arith- 
metic and  grammar,  it  has  been  deliberately  planned 
and  placed  in  the  course  as  a  result  of  public  senti- 
ment backed  up  by  legislative  and  educational  man- 
date. Although  educators  have  long  regarded  physi- 
cal education  as  of  supreme  importance,  it  has  been 

256 


PHYSIOLOGY  257 

only  in  comparatively  recent  years  that  this  opinion 
has  gained  sufficient  momentum  to  overcome  the  tradi- 
tional intellectualism  of  the  schools.  Herbert  Spencer, 
it  will  be  recalled,  in  his  essay  on  "What  Knowledge 
Is  of  Most  Worth?"  gives  a  prominent  place  to  the 
value  of  physiology  as  the  science,  knowledge  of  which 
is  necessitated  by  rational  self-preservation.  There 
would  probably  be  universal  agreement  among  educa- 
tors today  that  the  preservation  of  health  is  the 
principal  argument  for  the  retention  of  physiology 
in  the  elementary  curriculum.  More  specifically  the 
evil  effects  of  indulgence  in  alcoholic  liquors  and  nar- 
cotics have  induced  a  world-wide  propaganda  which 
has  been  directly  responsible  for  the  introduction  of 
physiology  in  the  schools  of  many  states.  Just  how 
the  teaching  of  this  subject  may  help  in  the  formation 
of  hygienic  habits  will  be  considered  in  some  detail 
later  in  this  chapter. 

Conventional  Value, — Those  who  find  the  justification 
of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  school  course  merely 
in  their  relation  to  hygiene  overlook  the  undoubted 
conventional  value  of  these  subjects.  This  value  prob- 
ably comes  out  more  prominently  here  than  in  the 
case  of  history  or  geography.  Our  bodies  are  our 
earthly  dwelling  places  and  form  a  quite  important 
feature  of  the  landscape  of  home  geography.  The 
sage's  "Know  thyself,"  although  primarily  intended 
probably  to  apply  to  the  spirit,  is  equally  applicable 
to  the  body.  Knowledge  of  the  structure  and  use  of 
the  shoulder  joint  is  more  likely  to  be  demanded  in 
the  ordinary  intercourse  of  life  than  the  ability  to 


258  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

name  the  countries  crossed  by  the  Equator  or  the 
events  of  Monroe's  administration,  and  this  entirely 
apart  from  any  useful  application  of  the  information. 
Of  course,  by  no  means  equal  conventional  value  at- 
taches to  all  the  details  of  anatomy  and  physiology. 
That  the  spinal  column  consists  of  a  number  of  hollow 
bones  surrounding  the  spinal  cord  every  human  ver- 
tebrate should  know.  Their  exact  number  and  desig- 
nations are  not  equally  important  items  of  informa- 
tion. For  a  wise  selection  of  topics  based  upon  their 
conventional  value,  the  teacher  must  rely  largely  on 
a  good  text-book  supplemented  by  her  own  common 
sense. 

Literary  allusions  also  render  some  knowledge  of 
anatomy  and  physiology  desirable.  Holmes 's  Living 
Temple  is  an  extreme  illustration.  But  frequent 
references  to  various  details  of  human  functioning 
and  structure  abound  in  both  poetry  and  prose.  Some 
of  the  most  exquisite  passages  of  Tennyson,  for  ex- 
ample, can  be  appreciated  only  with  the  help  of  such 
knowledge. 

Theoretic  Value. — There  are  many  parts  of  these 
sciences  which  have  neither  sufficient  utilitarian  nor 
conventional  value  to  justify  their  inclusion  in  the 
course.  They  are  useful,  however,  in  giving  a  setting 
for  otherwise  valuable  facts,  or  in  rendering  various 
processes  intelligible.  As  we  shall  see  in  the  following 
paragraphs,  the  building  up  of  hygienic  habits  on  the 
basis  of  physiological  knowledge  demands  that  this 
knowledge  should  be  richer  and  more  complete  than 
would  ordinarily  seem  necessary. 


PHYSIOLOGY  259 

Objective  Methods. — The  discussion  of  objective 
methods  in  connection  with  geography  applies  with 
equal  force  to  the  subjects  now  under  consideration. 
Excursions,  however,  are  scarcely  demanded  as  the 
objects  of  study  can  usually  be  brought  into  the  class- 
room. In  fact,  the  pupils  themselves  bring  many  of 
these  objects  on  their  persons,  although  they  are  gener- 
ally concealed  from  view.  There  is  some  question  as 
to  how  far  this  objective  presentation  should  include 
the  exhibition  and  dissection  of  various  organs. 
Teachers  can  scarcely  be  expected  to  do  such  work  ef- 
fectively, and  consideration  must  also  be  had  for  in- 
jurious emotional  effects.  Most  school  girls  and  many 
school  boys  would  find  the  dissection  of  a  sheep's 
heart  or  lungs  rather  revolting.  Where  this  result 
can  be  avoided,  intensity  is  given  to  the  impressions 
by  the  actual  observation  and  handling  of  bones,  mus- 
cles, tendons,  etc.  The  working  apparatus  of  the 
physiology  teacher  should  include  large  models  of  the 
various  organs,  as  well  as  good  pictorial  representa- 
tions and  diagrams.  For  elementary  pupils,  a  good 
anatomical  model  is  often  more  effective  than  the  ac- 
tual object. 

The  correlation  of  physiology  and  physics  should  be 
emphasized  objectively  and  experimentally.  It  has 
seemed  to  the  author  that  it  might  even  be  desirable 
to  include  in  the  elementary  course  such  experimental 
work  in  physics  as  is  required  for  the  intelligent  ap- 
preciation of  both  geography  and  physiology.  It 
could  be  made  simple  and  interesting,  and  there  would 
be  a  decided  psychological  advantage  in  having  the 


260         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

pupil's  knowledge  of  physics  form  an  apperceptive 
system  of  its  own.  Whatever  may  be  thought  of  this 
suggestion,  there  is  no  doubt  that  such  subjects  as 
respiration,  digestion,  and  perspiration  are  best  under- 
stood when  shown  as  applications  of  simple  physical 
and  chemical  laws.  Interesting  experiments  in  atmos- 
pheric pressure  requiring  but  little  apparatus  form  an 
interesting  perceptual  basis  for  the  comprehension  of 
the  phenomena  of  breathing.  The  relation  of  evapora- 
tion to  the  regulation  of  the  bodily  heat  can  readily 
be  made  clear  by  a  preparatory  lesson  in  experimental 
physics.  Similarly  the  inability  of  carbonic  acid  gas 
to  support  combustion  is  vividly  shown  by  means  of 
such  simple  apparatus  as  a  tumbler,  some  vinegar, 
baking  soda,  and  a  lighted  taper.  Every  successful 
teacher  of  elementary  physiology  should  have  a  work- 
ing knowledge  of  simple  experimental  physics.  If  this 
has  not  been  derived  from  her  normal  training,  she 
must  bestir  herself  to  gain  it  in  some  other  way.  Ham- 
let's  advice,  " Assume  a  virtue  if  you  have  it  not," 
should  be  taken  to  heart  by  every  live  teacher. 

The  Formation  of  Healthful  Habits. — There  is  no 
doubt  that  the  formation  of  healthful  bodily  habits 
is  the  principal,  and,  among  many  educators,  the  sole 
justification  of  anatomy  and  physiology  in  the  elemen- 
tary school.  Such  habits  may  be  fostered  in  various 
ways,  some  through  the  influence  of  the  teacher,  most, 
however,  through  the  pupil's  home  life. 

Many  bodily  habits  are  instinctive  and  directly  con- 
nected with  self-preservation.  The  protective  closing 
of  the  eyes,  the  movements  of  sucking,  etc.,  are  either 


PHYSIOLOGY  261 

present  at  birth  or  very  early  selected  and  fixed  from 
multiple  reflex  responses.  There  are,  however,  many 
exceedingly  useful  habits  which  have  to  be  acquired. 
Some  of  them  belong  absolutely  to  the  home.  Regu- 
larity of  bowel  movements,  bodily  cleanliness,  care  of 
the  teeth  are  a  few  illustrations  of  habits  which  should 
have  been  crystallized  in  the  child's  home  long  before 
he  reaches  school  age.  In  addition  there  might  be 
mentioned  proper  positions  in  sitting  and  standing, 
bedroom  ventilation,  slow  mastication,  etc. 

The  important  question  here  for  education  is  the 
determination  of  the  school's  attitude  toward  the 
habits  which  have  not  been  formed  in  the  home.  The 
tendency  today  is  to  hold  the  school  responsible  for 
such  functions  as  are  conspicuously  neglected  by  the 
other  educational  institutions — the  home,  church,  state, 
and  vocation.  The  modern  school  can  no  longer 
silently  ignore  decayed  teeth,  poor  eyesight,  mouth 
breathing,  etc.  So  broad  has  become  the  scope  of  the 
school  that  it  is  forced  to  call  to  its  aid  various  forces, 
civic  and  social.  Medical  inspection  is  now  a  feature 
of  almost  all  progressive  school  systems.  It  has  been 
brought  about  not  only  to  aid  the  individual  sufferer 
but  also  to  protect  the  community  from  the  spread  of 
disease.  Such  medical  inspection  supplemented  by 
follow-up  work  of  nurses  has  exerted  a  direct  bene- 
ficial influence  upon  the  home.  Indeed,  in  many  cases, 
the  school  has  been  used  as  a  place  of  training  for  ig- 
norant parents.  In  this  work  the  class  teacher  takes 
little  or  no  part.  It  is  completely  managed  by  special- 
ists— physicians  and  nurses.  The  teacher,  by  her  in- 


262         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

terest,  attention,  and  subsequent  inquiries  among  the 
pupils,  can  do  much  to  aid  the  beneficent  outcome  of 
the  work. 

Some  writers  and  lecturers  on  hygiene  attach  con- 
siderable importance  to  the  deterrent  influence  of  fear 
as  a  means  of  preventing  various  evil  practices. 
While  probably  of  some  value,  the  appeal  to  this 
motive  is  easily  overdone.  That  natural  laws  are  in- 
exorable is  a  profound  truth  which  we  all  learn  sooner 
or  later.  It  is,  however,  extremely  doubtful  whether 
elementary  pupils  are  mature  enough  to  grasp  the 
import  of  this  truth.  Fear  of  consequences  as  a  reason 
for  avoiding  certain  kinds  of  conduct  is  always  open 
to  the  objection  that  the  chance  of  escaping  detec- 
tion gives  a  degree  of  zest  to  the  act.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true  where  the  main  penalty  is  the  disap- 
proval of  one's  fellows.  The  bare-foot  boy  who  was 
expected  to  indulge  in  regular  nocturnal  washing  of 
these  extremities  or  risk  the  penalty  of  a  spanking 
often  weighed  the  chances  of  detection,  omitted  the  irk- 
some ablution,  and  not  infrequently  "got  away  with 
it."  So,  even  when  Nature  is  regarded  as  the  ma- 
ternal spanker,  there  is  often  the  desire  to  "get  away 
with  it."  Another  weakness  of  the  appeal  to  the 
emotion  of  fear  as  a  deterrent  is  the  fact  that  the  evil 
consequences  are  felt  to  be,  and  often  are,  grossly  ex- 
aggerated. The  "terrible  example"  is  apt  to  be  re- 
garded as  a  kind  of  impossible  caricature.  Such 
exaggerations,  moreover,  often  do  much  harm.  The 
germ  of  truth  is  liable  to  be  completely  swallowed  up 
in  the  caricature,  and  the  whole  effect  of  the  teaching 


PHYSIOLOGY  263 

is  lost.  The  boy  who  daily  sees  his  father  drink  liquor 
with  his  meals,  and  smoke  a  pipe  or  cigar  will  prob- 
ably treat  as  a  joke  any  extreme  or  injudicious  teach- 
ing of  the  terrible  consequences  of  these  habits. 

It  is  not  intended  to  imply  that  the  influence  of  fear 
as  an  inhibitive  factor  is  to  be  disregarded.  The 
above  discussion  applies  only  to  its  unwise  or  exag- 
gerated use.  All  through  life  a  wholesome  fear  of 
foreseen  consequences  of  wrong  acts  is  an  indispens- 
able motive.  The  expression,  "A  God  fearing  man," 
epitomizes  conscientiousness  from  the  religious  view- 
point. Both  the  physical  and  social  sanctions  of  hu- 
man life  are  important  levers  of  moral  conduct. 
Dread  of  evil  consequences,  wisely  developed,  is,  as  we 
shall  see,  an  essential  factor  in  the  teaching  of  hy- 
giene. 

The  healthful  habits  which  can  be  developed  by 
direct  practice  in  the  class-room  are  not  many.  Clean- 
liness, at  least  of  the  visible  parts  of  the  body,  can 
and  should  be  insisted  upon.  In  some  of  the  poorer 
sections  of  large  cities,  school  baths  form  part  of 
the  physical  curriculum.  It  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether,  in  this  generation  at  least,  the  practice  will 
be  more  than  sporadic.  So  far  as  food  is  concerned, 
many  teachers  find  their  principal  work  to  consist  in 
eliminating  it  from  the  class  room.  The  plan  of  pro- 
viding wholesome  school  lunches,  however,  may  be  re- 
garded as  a  means  of  forming  good  habits,  and  as  a 
formal  exercise  in  developing  taste  and  judgment  in 
regard  to  the  selection  of  food.  Lessons  in  cooking 
also  constitute  a  means  of  direct  influence  in  hygienic 


264         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

science.  Proper  positions  in  sitting  and  standing, 
breathing  exercises,  and  gymnastic  drills  receive  con- 
siderable attention  in  the  elementary  school.  Hy- 
gienic habits  may  reasonably  be  expected  to  follow 
the  wise  employment  of  such  exercises. 

Most  of  the  useful  healthful  habits  cannot  receive 
sufficient  direct  practice  in  the  school.  This  does  not 
mean  that  they  should  be  neglected  there.  On  the  con- 
trary, it  becomes  an  exceedingly  important  question 
how  best  to  conserve  the  physical  welfare  of  the  pupils, 
to  make  the  school  work,  though  necessarily  indirect, 
still  potent.  The  best  means  of  attaining  this  end  will 
be  discussed  in  some  detail  after  a  preliminary  con- 
sideration of  the  psychology  of  conduct. 

The  Psychology  of  Conduct. — It  is  often  said,  and  the 
statement  meets  with  universal  educational  approval, 
that  the  end  or  aim  of  instruction  is  ethical.  That 
knowledge  is  best  which  makes  for  socially  efficient 
action.  The  apparent  inconsistency  of  knowing  the 
right  and  still  doing  the  wrong  is  a  problem  which 
has  exercised  the  thought  of  philosophers  and  psychol- 
ogists in  all  ages.  Socrates,  it  will  be  remembered, 
identified  knowledge  and  virtue.  To  his  mind,  the 
wise  men  could  willfully  do  no  wrong.  Evil  conduct 
was  perforce  the  result  of  ignorance,  a  failure  to  ap- 
preciate and  give  sufficient  weight  to  those  conse- 
quences which  were  ever  discernible  to  the  eye  of 
wisdom.  Human  experience,  however,  has  scarcely 
been  able  to  verify  this  high  ethical  ideal.  It  is  a 
fact  of  common  observation  that  we  may  often  clearly 
see  the  right  and  yet  choose  the  wrong. 


PHYSIOLOGY  265 

The  development  of  action  is  the  outgrowth  of  both 
nature  and  nurture.  Every  individual  conies  into  the 
world  with  a  fund  of  ready-made  motor  reactions. 
Some  of  these  appear  even  before  birth,  others  shortly 
after,  and  some,  e.  g.,  those  of  adolescence,  are  de- 
ferred until  comparatively  late  in  life.  These  instincts 
are  biologically  explainable  on  the  basis  of  general 
and  special  heredity.  The  Italian  or  Chinese  has  not 
only  the  racial  traits  of  his  people  but  also  evidences 
the  peculiarities  of  his  immediate  ancestry.  Out  of 
this  mass  of  instinctive  reactions  to  his  material  and 
spiritual  environment  there  gradually  develops,  largely 
through  the  influence  of  pleasure  and  pain,  his  own 
personality.  The  pleasurable  consequences  of  success 
by  degrees  transform  the  aimless  movements  of  the 
infant  into  the  purposeful  actions  of  the  child.  The 
force  of  imitation  and  the  approval  and  disapproval 
of  parents,  nurses,  etc.,  are  important  factors  in  this 
development.  By  the  time  the  child  is  of  school  age, 
numerous  instinctive  reactions  have  been  largely 
eliminated  and  many  necessary  habits  formed.  As 
the  mind  matures,  thoughtful  deliberation  tends  to 
supplant  instinctive  reaction,  though  the  force  of  early 
training  and  association  remains  quite  potent. 

Every  idea  which  occupies  the  mind  has  a  motor 
aspect.  This  is  evident  to  even  casual  observation, 
and  it  has  also  been  made  the  subject  of  much  psycho- 
logical experimentation.  In  a  set  of  experiments 
made  by  the  author  on  his  four  year  old  daughter, 
ninety-two  per  cent  of  a  large  number  of  definitions 
secured  were  of  an  entirely  motor  character.  The 


266  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE  GRADES 

piano — an  automatic  player — was  a  thing  "what  you 
play  with  your  feet;"  a  window  was  "what  you  look 
out  of,"  etc.  Not  only  does  the  mention  of  the  ob- 
ject suggest  a  corresponding  motor  idea,  but  it  fre- 
quently gives  rise  to  the  act  itself.  Several  familial- 
household  games  are  based  upon  this  psychological 
fact.  The  more  intense  the  idea,  and  the  richer  its 
mental  organization,  the  greater  the  likelihood  of  the 
resultant  act.  Focalization  of  attention  is  thus  seen 
to  be  a  most  important  factor  in  the  formation  of  new 
habits,  or  in  the  breaking  of  old  ones.  More  impor- 
tant than  such  focalization,  however,  is  the  thorough- 
going organization  of  ideas  into  apperceptive  systems. 
The  Herbartians  have  worked  out  this  aspect  of  voli- 
tion most  completely.  A  well  organized  mind  will 
naturally  mean  a  consistent  character.  Strength  for 
action  is  secured  through  the  mutual  reinforcement 
of  the  various  ideal  elements.  When  there  is  com- 
bined with  such  mental  organization  proper  ethical 
ideas  we  have  not  only  a  consistent  character  but  a 
moral  character  as  well.  Pleasure  is  not  viewed  as  a 
distinct  constituent  of  mind,  but  merely  as  the  emo- 
tional phase  of  an  idea  train  moving  in  a  manner  com- 
patible with  the  individual's  ordinary  processes  of 
thought.  Displeasure  or  aversion  arises  as  the  result 
of  a  checking  or  retardation  of  the  wonted  idea  trains. 
In  fact,  it  is  this  retardation.  The  state  of  desire  is 
the  corresponding  feeling  of  arrest.  The  ability  to  re- 
move this  arrest  and  permit  the  idea  train  to  proceed 
constitutes  the  essence  of  will.  Two  boys,  A  and  B, 
see  a  dog  frantically  endeavoring  to  remove  a  pack 


PHYSIOLOGY  267 

of  exploding  fire-crackers  dangling  on  its  tail.  A 
laughs,  enjoying  the  acceleration  of  his  usual  idea 
trains  in  which  love  of  cruelty  is  a  prominent  feature. 
B  is  moved  to  compassion  and  is  distressed.  His  idea 
trains,  characterized  by  consideration  for  animal  suf- 
fering, are  arrested.  This  arrest  transforms  itself  into 
the  desire  to  relieve  the  poor  animal.  In  the  next 
paragraph  we  shall  attempt  to  apply  this  discussion 
of  the  springs  of  conduct  to  the  formation  of  habits 
conducive  to  health. 

Teaching  Hygiene. — The  foregoing  sketch  of  the 
psychology  of  action  will  enable  us  to  give  an  answer 
to  the  query  concerning  the  value  of  a  study  of  an- 
atomy and  physiology  in  their  relation  to  hygiene.  It 
is  sometimes  urged  that  the  present  elementary  course 
in  these  subjects  is  indefensible.  If  the  aim  is  health- 
ful living,  why  not  teach  just  hygiene  directly  ?  The 
school  is  not  supposed  to  train  its  pupils  to  become 
physicians.  Such  an  argument  seems  plausible  to  the 
layman  and  even  to  the  average  medical  practitioner. 
The  educator  is,  of  course,  willing  to  admit  that  many 
useful  practices  must  be  taught  simply, as  hygiene. 
The  emergency  treatment  of  burns,  disinfection  of 
wounds,  bandaging  of  cuts,  etc.,  are  a  few  illustrations. 
In  general,  the  school  should  give  instruction  in  proper 
procedure  in  emergencies  to  be  employed  in  the  in- 
terim before  medical  treatment  can  be  secured. 

The  everyday  processes  of  life,  however,  demand  a 
different  educational  preparation.  Emergencies  are 
the  exception,  not  the  rule.  Habits  of  eating,  and 
drinking,  care  of  the  teeth  and  eyes,  cleanliness,  ex- 


268         INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

ercise,  pure  air,  sufficient  sleep,  etc.,  are  needed  every 
minute  of  the  ordinary  uneventful  life.  To  secure  a 
proper  attitude  toward  these  processes  there  is  needed 
a  rich  mental  soil  of  apperception,  in  which  anatom- 
ical and  physiological  details  form  the  rational  basis 
for  action.  To  lead  the  child  to  deduce  hygienic  rules 
for  himself  should  be  the  aim  of  a  good  teacher.  Thus 
deduced,  these  rules  will  be  more  likely  to  influence 
conduct.  The  self-active  cooperation  of  the  pupil 
makes  for  the  most  permanent  form  of  mental  organi- 
zation. This  psychological  fact  has  been  alluded  to  in 
several  parts  of  this  book,  but  its  splendid  application 
here  justifies  its  repetition.  A  teacher,  for  example, 
has  a  class  of  pupils  who  give  every  evidence  of  ab- 
sence of  tooth  brushes  in  the  hygienic  equipment  of 
their  homes.  Simply  to  tell  them  that  they  should 
brush  their  teeth  is  so  much  waste  of  time  and  breath. 
To  add  some  reason,  such  as  that  neglect  of  teeth  will 
lead  to  decay  and  finally  impair  digestion,  consti- 
tutes considerably  better  teaching,  but  even  this  can- 
not be  relied  on  to  initiate  effective  habits.  The  exhi- 
bition of  a  large  model  of  a  decayed  tooth  would  add 
an  objective  and  an  emotionally  impressive  element. 
Better  than  any  of  these  methods,  though  probably 
including  the  latter,  would  be  to  follow  up  the  explana- 
tion of  the  process  of  digestion  by  a  detailed  presenta- 
tion of  the  structure  and  function  of  the  teeth.  Here 
is  where  detail  is  psychologically  important.  The 
structure  of  enamel,  dentine,  and  nerve  pulp  should 
be  impressively  shown  either  by  means  of  large  models 
or  clear  pictures.  An  entire  lesson  could  profitably 


PHYSIOLOGY  269 

be  spent  in  the  elucidation  of  these  anatomical  de- 
tails. It  should  be  followed  by  an  interesting  presen- 
tation, also  objective,  of  the  process  of  decay  and  its 
causes.  A  particularly  full  treatment  is  justified  here 
on  account  of  the  relation  of  the  topic  to  cleanliness  in 
general.  After  the  class  has  secured  a  general  idea 
of  the  digestive  process,  followed  by  anatomical  study 
of  tooth  structure  and  the  laws  of  decay,  there  should 
follow  a  real  Socratic  lesson  in  hygiene.  The  pupils 
are  now  in  a  position  to  deduce  for  themselves  the 
necessity  for  and  the  method  of  care  of  the  teeth. 
Their  knowledge  of  the  interesting  structure  of  enamel 
combined  with  the  understanding  of  its  protective 
function  will  readily  enable  them  to  see  the  need  of 
frequent  removal  of  all  putrefactive  substances.  They 
can  easily  reason  out  the  most  essential  times  for  such 
removal,  viz.,  immediately  after  eating,  and  can  be 
led  to  deduce  the  proper  manner  of  cleansing.  A  large 
model  of  a  tooth  brush,  with  an  explanation  of  the 
nature  and  arrangement  of  its  bristles,  would  form 
an  impressive  objective  presentation.  The  desir- 
ability of  brushing  the  teeth  in  a  direction  away  from 
the  gums  could  be  developed  from  the  class  by  proper 
questioning.  The  self-active  processes  are  peculiarly 
important  here  as  in  every  subject  where  action  as 
well  as  knowledge  is  desired.  Similarly  the  class 
could  determine  the  proper  nature  and  use  of  a  tooth- 
pick. Probably  all  that  would  have  to  be  simply  told 
them  would  be  the  kind  of  tooth-paste  or  powder  best 
adapted  for  cleansing.  They  must  also  be  led  to  see 
that  the  importance  of  mastication  for  good  digestion 


270          INSTRUCTION  IN  THE  GRADES 

and  health  demands  that  they  do  all  they  can  to  con- 
serve their  teeth.  Even  with  the  best  human  care, 
disease  of  the  teeth  may  occur.  The  need  of  regular 
visits  to  a  tooth  specialist — a  dentist — should  be  im- 
pressed. His  knowledge  and  apparatus  enable  him 
to  detect  the  beginnings  of  tooth  trouble,  and  save  us 
much  misery  and  distress.  The  plan  outlined  above 
for  the  teaching  of  tooth  hygiene  may  seem  long  and 
complicated.  It  is  nevertheless  an  effective  procedure, 
and  the  importance  of  the  subject  amply  justifies  the 
length  of  time  demanded. 

Similar  apperceptive  organization  is  needed  for  the 
proper  teaching  of  many  other  rules  of  everyday  hy- 
giene. Perhaps  more  anatomical  and  physiological 
knowledge  is  required  than  the  average  teacher  pos- 
sesses. She  will,  however,  scarcely  teach  hygiene  ef- 
fectively unless  she  secures  this  knowledge.  The  mul- 
tiplication of  associations  in  this  kind  of  mental  organi- 
zation means  not  only  a  better  retention  of  the  knowl- 
edge, but  renders  the  pupil's  environment  a  series 
of  constant  reminders  or  suggestions  of  necessary 
health  processes.  He  is  enabled  to  appreciate  the 
reasons  for  hygienic  practices  and,  more  than  this,  the 
reasons  are  so  thoroughly  interwoven  with  his  whole 
mental  life  that  they  can  reasonably  be  expected  to  in- 
fluence his  conduct.  If  this  desirable  result  is 
thwarted  by  the  long  neglect  of  his  home  surround- 
ings, it  may  at  least  become  effective  when,  as  a  parent, 
he  sees  the  necessity  of  giving  his  own  children  the 
hygienic  training  which  was  denied  him.  The  teacher 
combating  the  influences  of  home  training  must  often 


PHYSIOLOGY  271 

escape  absolute  despair  by  the  thought  that  her  teach- 
ing may  bear  fruit  at  least  in  the  next  generation. 

To  the  objection  that  there  is  too  much  anatomical 
detail  required  in  the  elementary  course,  we  can  an- 
swer yes  and  no.  A  rational  course  in  physiology 
should  demand  even  more  detail  where  it.  can  be  made 
an  effective  means  for  mental  organization  as  a  basis 
for  healthful  living.  Where  no  such  end  is  discern- 
ible, detail  can  be  justified  only  by  its  conventional 
or  theoretic  value.  Such  details  should  be  carefully 
restricted.  We  may  instance  as  a  few  of  the  results 
which  we  might  reasonably  expect  from  a  rational 
course  in  physiology:  assuming  proper  positions  of 
reader  and  book  especially  when  using  artificial  light, 
the  avoidance  of  reading  in  moving  vehicles,  the 
(negative)  care  of  the  ear,1  conscientious  ventilation 
of  sleeping  apartments,  the  group  of  healthful  habits 
springing  directly  from  a  knowledge  of  the  rela- 
tion of  blood  supply  to  exercise,  digestion,  and 
mental  exertion,  cleanliness — particularly  in  regard 
to  the  prevention  of  the  spread  of  disease,  proper 
attention  to  the  elimination  of  waste,  especially  the 
importance  of  regular  bowel  movements,  appre- 
ciation of  the  need  of  sufficient  sleep,  a  knowl- 
edge of  food  values  and  methods  of  food  prepa- 
ration. 

i  There  is  probably  no  better  way  of  securing  respect  for  this 
important  organ  than  by  giving  a  complete  description  of  its 
delicate  anatomy.  It  is  not  intended  that  all  or  any  of  this 
anatomical  knowledge  should  be  demanded  from  the  pupil.  Its 
value  lies  rather  in  its  function  as  a  mental  cement,  and  as 
conducive  to  a  proper  hygienic  attitude. 


272  INSTRUCTION   IN   THE   GRADES 

Sex  Hygiene. — I  have  purposely  left  the  delicate  and 
difficult  subject  of  sex  hygiene  for  separate  considera- 
tion. Although  many  regard  the  home  as  the  natural 
place  for  instruction  and  guidance  in  this  subject 
its  conspicuous  neglect  there  has  tended  to  force  it 
into  the  school.  Modern  conditions  have  made  this 
topic  one  of  even  greater  importance  than  it  was  some 
centuries  ago.  Civilization  has  so  prolonged  the 
period  of  sociological  infancy  that  fifteen  years  or 
more  frequently  intervenes  between  physiological  and 
sociological  marriageability.  This  is  a  peculiarly  dan- 
gerous period  as  the  passions  are  then  strongest  and 
reason  and  volition  are  insufficiently  developed  to  vie 
against  them.  From  about  the  seventh  school  year  on 
through  the  high  school  the  physical  and  moral  care 
of  adolescence  assumes  tremendous  importance. 

In  general,  the  elementary  school  must  fortify  the 
child  against  his  lower  self  by  a  wholesome  atmos- 
phere, by  aiding  in  the  development  of  the  mental 
fiber  resulting  from  contact  with  good  literature,  and 
by  the  rigorous  avoidance  of  the  lewd  and  suggestive. 
Many  are  of  the  opinion  that,  from  the  time  of  ado- 
lescence, boys  should  be  taught  by  men  and  girls  by 
women.  It  is,  however,  questionable  whether  their  ar- 
guments are  sufficient  to  outweigh  the  many  ad- 
vantages of  co-education.  The  school  should  endeavor 
to  supply  a  wholesome  outlet  for  the  energy  of  the 
pupils.  Encouragement  should  be  given  to  all  forms 
of  out-door  recreation,  such  as  athletics,  for  both  boys 
and  girls.  Supervised  play  and  carefully  organized 
social  work  are  forms  of  extra-scholastic  activity 


PHYSIOLOGY  273 

which  should  be  provided  for  by  public  spirited  Boards 
of  Education.  In  sexual  morality,  it  is  particularly 
true  that  an  ounce  of  prevention  is  worth  a  pound  of 
cure. 

It  is  probably  unwise  for  the  elementary  class- 
teacher  to  attempt  any  direct  teaching  along  the  lines 
of  sex  hygiene.  It  is  a  growing  opinion  among  close 
students  of  the  problem  that  all  such  instruction 
should  be  strictly  private  or  individual.  The  medical 
inspector,  nurse,  and  teacher  must  form  a  vigilant 
trio.  Moreover,  in  this  work,  the  school  should  reach 
out  to  influence  the  home.  Parents'  meetings  in  which 
the  importance  of  the  subject  is  frankly  and  impres- 
sively discussed  may  be  productive  of  considerable 
good.  Throughout  all  such  work  there  should  be  at- 
tempted the  destruction  of  the  absolutely  untenable 
double  standard  of  sex  morality.  Impurity  must  be 
regarded  as  a  sin  not  only  for  women  but  also  for 
men. 


THE   END 


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274 


Teachers  Books  Psycliology,  Pedagogy 

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275 


Teachers  Books  Psychology,  Pedagogy 

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276 


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